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Bimanual Robot Manipulation via Multi-Agent In-Context Learning

Alessio Palma, Indro Spinelli, Vignesh Prasad, Luca Scofano, Yufeng Jin, Georgia Chalvatzaki, Fabio Galasso

Year: 2026Venue: arXiv preprintArea: cs.ROType: PreprintEmbeddings: 89

Intelligence

Status: succeeded | Model: Gemma-4-26B-A4B | Prompt: intel-v1 | Confidence: 98%

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Summary

The paper introduces BiCICLe (Bimanual Coordinated In-Context Learning), a multi-agent framework designed to enable Large Language Models (LLMs) to perform bimanual robot manipulation via in-context learning without task-specific training. BiCICLe addresses the high-dimensional coordination challenges of bimanual control by framing it as a leader-follower problem, where a 'Leader' agent predicts its trajectory and a 'Follower' agent predicts its actions conditioned on the leader's plan. The framework incorporates 'Arms’ Debate' for iterative refinement and a 'Best-of-N' strategy using an 'LLM-as-Judge' for variance reduction. Evaluated on the TWIN benchmark, BiCICLe achieves a 71.1% average success rate, outperforming existing training-free baselines and even surpassing several supervised methods on specific tasks.

Entities (9)

3DFA · supervised-method · 100%Arms’ Debate · inference-strategy · 100%BiCICLe · framework · 100%CoppeliaSim · simulation-environment · 100%Franka Panda · robot · 100%LLM · model-class · 100%LLM-as-Judge · inference-strategy · 100%RoboPrompt · baseline-method · 100%TWIN benchmark · benchmark · 100%

Relation Signals (5)

BiCICLe → evaluatedon → TWIN benchmark

confidence 100% · Evaluated on 13 tasks from the TWIN benchmark, BiCICLe achieves up to 71.1% average success rate...

BiCICLe → includes → Arms’ Debate

confidence 100% · This naturally extends to Arms' Debate, an iterative refinement process...

BiCICLe → includes → LLM-as-Judge

confidence 100% · ...and to the introduction of a third LLM-as-Judge to evaluate and select the most plausible coordinated trajectories.

Franka Panda → simulatedin → CoppeliaSim

confidence 100% · We consider a bimanual Franka Panda robot operating in the CoppeliaSim [35] simulation environment...

BiCICLe → uses → LLM

confidence 100% · BiCICLe frames bimanual control as a multi-agent leader-follower problem, decoupling the action space into sequential, conditioned single-arm predictions.

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Abstract

Abstract:Language Models (LLMs) have emerged as powerful reasoning engines for embodied control. In particular, In-Context Learning (ICL) enables off-the-shelf, text-only LLMs to predict robot actions without any task-specific training while preserving their generalization capabilities. Applying ICL to bimanual manipulation remains challenging, as the high-dimensional joint action space and tight inter-arm coordination constraints rapidly overwhelm standard context windows. To address this, we introduce BiCICLe (Bimanual Coordinated In-Context Learning), the first framework that enables standard LLMs to perform few-shot bimanual manipulation without fine-tuning. BiCICLe frames bimanual control as a multi-agent leader-follower problem, decoupling the action space into sequential, conditioned single-arm predictions. This naturally extends to Arms' Debate, an iterative refinement process, and to the introduction of a third LLM-as-Judge to evaluate and select the most plausible coordinated trajectories. Evaluated on 13 tasks from the TWIN benchmark, BiCICLe achieves up to 71.1% average success rate, outperforming the best training-free baseline by 6.7 percentage points and surpassing most supervised methods. We further demonstrate strong few-shot generalization on novel tasks.

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Bimanual Robot Manipulation via Multi-Agent In-Context Learning Alessio Palma 1∗ , Indro Spinelli 1 , Vignesh Prasad 2 , Luca Scofano 1 , Yufeng Jin 2 , Georgia Chalvatzaki 2,3† , and Fabio Galasso 1† 1 Sapienza University of Rome, Italy 2 TU Darmstadt, Germany 3 Hessian.AI, Germany Abstract. Language Models (LLMs) have emerged as powerful rea- soning engines for embodied control. In particular, In-Context Learn- ing (ICL) enables off-the-shelf, text-only LLMs, to predict robot actions without any task-specific training while preserving their generalization capabilities. Applying ICL to bimanual manipulation remains challeng- ing as the high-dimensional joint action space and tight inter-arm coordi- nation constraints rapidly overwhelm standard context windows. To ad- dress this, we introduce BiCICLe (Bimanual Coordinated In-Context Learning), the first framework that enables standard LLMs to perform few-shot bimanual manipulation without fine-tuning. BiCICLe frames bimanual control as a multi-agent leader-follower problem, decoupling the action space into sequential, conditioned single-arm predictions. This naturally extends to Arms’ Debate, an iterative refinement process, and to the introduction of a third LLM-as-Judge to evaluate and select the most plausible coordinated trajectories. Evaluated on 13 tasks from the TWIN benchmark, BiCICLe achieves up to 71.1% average success rate, outperforming the best training-free baseline by 6.7 percentage points and surpassing most supervised methods. We further demonstrate strong few-shot generalization on novel tasks. Keywords: Bimanual Manipulation· In-Context Learning· Large Lan- guage Models· Robot Learning 1 Introduction Bimanual manipulation is a cornerstone capability for general-purpose robotic systems. Tasks such as lifting a tray or unscrewing a bottle cap require two arms to synchronize positions, orientations, and forces to accomplish goals that no single arm can achieve alone. This coordination is fundamentally harder than single-arm control: a positional error in one arm forces the other to compen- sate, rapidly compounding until the task fails. The joint action space grows exponentially, and strict temporal synchronization is required between the two ∗ alessio.palma@uniroma1.it. † Co-senior authors. arXiv:2604.20348v1 [cs.RO] 22 Apr 2026 2Palma et al. Fig. 1: Overview of the BiCICLe Framework. (Left) Bimanual demonstrations are serialized into textual sequences of state observations and actions to construct the in-context prompt. (Right) During inference, a leader-follower decomposition enforces inter-arm coordination: the Leader agent predicts its full trajectory first; the Follower agent then predicts its actions conditioned on the Leader’s plan. No task-specific train- ing is required. arms [8, 14, 26, 46]. As a result, Imitation Learning (IL) and offline Reinforce- ment Learning (RL) typically demand large, task-specific datasets to capture these dependencies. In-Context Learning (ICL) with foundation models offers a compelling alter- native: adapting to new robot tasks without any gradient updates. By serializing the scene as text, Large Language Models (LLMs) act as generalist planners, bypassing the need for massive paired image-action datasets. This abstraction trades raw perceptual fidelity for zero-shot generalizability, a worthwhile ex- change that methods such as RoboPrompt [48] and KAT [10] have validated for single-arm manipulation. Extending this paradigm to bimanual manipula- tion, however, remains an open problem. A naive strategy of concatenating both arms’ commands into a monolithic joint action sequence inflates token length and increases per-step pattern complexity, causing the LLM to produce incoher- ent plans. Treating the arms as independent agents is equally untenable: the left arm may attempt a handover before the right arm is positioned to receive. In such contexts, no successful bimanual ICL framework currently exists. To bridge this gap, we introduce BiCICLe (Fig. 1), the first multi-agent ICL framework designed for bimanual coordination. Rather than treating bimanual control as a monolithic prediction task, BiCICLe adopts a leader-follower ar- chitecture instantiated as two distinct LLM agents. The Leader predicts its full trajectory from the scene observation. The Follower then predicts its actions conditioned on both the observation and the Leader’s complete plan. This fac- torization enforces inter-arm consistency while reducing the reasoning burden per agent. Bimanual Robot Manipulation via Multi-Agent In-Context Learning3 We further extend BiCICLe with two inference-time strategies. First, Arms’ Debate: a multi-turn iterative refinement process in which the Leader and Fol- lower sequentially re-plan, each treating the other’s most recent trajectory as a spatiotemporal reference. Second, a Best-of-N self-evaluation stage in which a third LLM-as-Judge scores multiple candidate trajectory pairs against demon- stration exemplars, selecting the most coordinated plan. Together, these strate- gies suppress sampling stochasticity without any additional training. Our con- tributions are as follows: – We present BiCICLe, the first multi-agent ICL framework that enables LLMs to solve bimanual manipulation tasks through structured leader-follower de- composition, without any task-specific training. – We introduce two inference-time refinement strategies that improve coordi- nation without modifying the underlying models: Arms’ Debate for iterative inter-agent re-planning and Best-of-N self-evaluation via an LLM-as-Judge. – We validate BiCICLe on 13 tasks from the TWIN benchmark, where BiCI- CLe + Best-of-N achieves up to 71.1% success rate, outperforming the best training-free baseline by 6.7 percentage points and surpassing most super- vised methods. We further demonstrate out-of-distribution generalization on two new tasks. 2 Related Work Robot Manipulation with Language Models. LLMs have been used for robot control in two broad paradigms. High-level planners decompose instruc- tions into skill sequences [17,18,28,39,42]: SayCan [18] grounds LLM outputs in robot affordances, while Code as Policies [28] generates executable robot code. These approaches rely on pre-defined skill libraries and do not produce low-level continuous actions. Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models fine-tune on robot datasets for end-to-end policies [20,23,54]: RT-2 [54] fine-tunes a VLM to output discretized actions, while π 0 [20] uses flow matching on a pre-trained backbone. In contrast, ICL-based approaches leverage frozen LLMs: RoboPrompt [48] seri- alizes demonstrations as text for pattern completion, and KAT [10] uses DINO- ViT keypoint correspondences [1] as observations. However, both are strictly limited to single-arm manipulation. To the best of our knowledge, ICL has not yet been successfully adapted for bimanual manipulation, a gap our work explic- itly addresses. Bimanual Robot Manipulation. Classical bimanual approaches rely on hand- crafted coordination, such as master-slave control or relative motion primi- tives [24,40]. Learning-based methods train neural policies from demonstrations via imitation learning [5,8,14,46] or reinforcement learning [7]. ACT [52] trains a transformer-based action-chunking policy from teleoperated demonstrations for bimanual tasks. More recently, π 0 [20] demonstrates bimanual dexterous manip- ulation by fine-tuning a VLM with flow matching on a large cross-embodiment dataset. Concurrently, RoboVLMs [27] provide a unified framework for fine- tuning VLMs as robot policies, and TwinVLA [19] proposes data-efficient biman- 4Palma et al. Fig. 2: Bimanual action prediction architectures. Single Agent: a monolithic LLM call predicts the jointZ 14 bimanual trajectory. Independent Agents: two separate Z 7 calls with no inter-arm communication. Leader-Follower (BiCICLe): the leader pre- dicts first, then the follower conditions on the leader’s plan. Arms’ Debate: two rounds of reversed leader-follower conditioning for iterative refinement. Best-of-N : multiple leader-follower candidates are generated and scored by an LLM-as-Judge, which se- lects the best plan. ual control by composing twin single-arm VLA models. All of these methods re- quire extensive training on large robotic datasets. In contrast, our approach does not need task-specific training or gradient updates; it operates purely through in-context learning using only a few demonstrations. In-Context Learning. ICL [4] enables LLMs to learn tasks from prompt exam- ples without parameter updates. Chain-of-thought [44] and self-consistency [43] improve ICL through structured reasoning. In robotics, ICL has been useful for planning with LLMs [17,28]; While some recent approaches have shown the ap- plicability of ICL for continuous control [36,41], visual ICL for robotics remains challenging, potentially due to the vision backbone that bottelnecks VLA-styled approaches [51]. In contrast, the use of ICL for predicting intermediate key poses from textual encoding of observations has proven to be effective in single arm ma- nipulation scenarios [10,48]. Building on this, we extend ICL to bimanual manip- ulation by utilizing the leader-follower decomposition as a structured prompting strategy. Multi-Agent Coordination with LLMs. Debate-style frameworks [11, 29] demonstrate that multiple LLMs can improve output quality through itera- tive discussion. Furthermore, multi-agent LLM coordination has been applied to multi-robot planning [32,50]. Our multi-turn Arms’ Debate architecture adapts this concept of iterative refinement to the domain of coordinated, low-level bi- manual action generation. 3 Method We formulate bimanual manipulation as the coordinated plan of two LLM- powered agents, each associated with one of the two arms. Each arm operates in a 7-dimensional end-effector action space—an SE(3) pose plus a binary gripper command, discretized intoZ 7 —yielding a joint bimanual spaceZ 14 that must Bimanual Robot Manipulation via Multi-Agent In-Context Learning5 be predicted at each keyframe. We first formalize the problem and describe the action and observation representations (Sec. 3.1), then present BiCICLe, a leader-follower agentic collaboration architecture (Sec. 3.2), followed by an iter- ative exchange for inter-arm synchronization dubbed Arms’ Debate (Sec. 3.3), and a Best-of-N strategy for variance reduction (Sec. 3.4). 3.1 Problem Formulation and Representations Task setup. We consider a bimanual Franka Panda robot operating in the Cop- peliaSim [35] simulation environment with the TWIN benchmark [16]. In each episode, the robot observes the scene through six RGB-D cameras (left/right over-shoulder, overhead, left/right wrist, and front). The episode terminates af- ter executing a successful sequence of K keyframe actions for both arms. Action discretization. Following RoboPrompt [48], actions are discretized into integer tokens. The workspace is bounded by a 3D box B = [−0.3,−0.5, 0.6]× [0.7, 0.5, 1.6] (meters) and discretized into a 100 3 voxel grid. Each end-effector position p∈R 3 is mapped to a voxel index (v x ,v y ,v z )∈0,..., 99 3 via: v i = p i −B min i B max i −B min i · 99 , i∈x,y,z,(1) where B min i and B max i are the bounds along axis i. End-effector orientations, represented as quaternions, are converted to Euler angles and discretized into bins of 5 ◦ , yielding rotation indices (r x ,r y ,r z )∈0,..., 71 3 . The gripper state is binarized as g ∈ 0, 1 (closed/open). A single-arm action is thus a 7-tuple a = (v x ,v y ,v z ,r x ,r y ,r z ,g), and a bimanual action is the concatenation a bi = [a R , a L ]∈Z 14 . Observation representation. At each timestep, the observation consists of the 3D positions of task-relevant objects. Object positions are computed by fus- ing segmentation masks and point clouds from all six cameras: for each object, masked point clouds are merged across views, downsampled using voxel grid fil- tering [53], and the centroid is discretized to voxel coordinates using Eq. (1). The observation is represented as a dictionary mapping object names to discretized positions: o =obj 1 : [x 1 ,y 1 ,z 1 ],..., obj M : [x M ,y M ,z M ].(2) This text-based representation is compact yet informative, encoding the spatial relationships between objects and the robot’s end-effectors that are critical for bimanual coordination. In contrast to [48], we found that including object ori- entations in the observation degrades performance on the simulation benchmark (see Supplementary Material). In-context demonstrations. A demonstration D i consists of an initial scene observation o i paired with K i bimanual keyframe actions A i = [a bi i,1 ,..., a bi i,K i ]. Following previous work [15], keyframes are identified via a heuristic that detects gripper state changes in either arm, zero joint velocities, and episode termina- tion. N = 10 demonstrations are serialized as text and prepended to the test 6Palma et al. observation o test to form the prompt: prompt = o 1 >A 1 , ... , o N >A N , o test >(3) 3.2 BiCICLe: A Leader-Follower LLM Architecture BiCICLe provides inter-arm coordination without increasing the per-agent ac- tion space or the context length of each LLM call. Rather than predicting the full sequence of bimanual actions a bi ∈Z 14 in a single agent call, we factor the problem into two sequentialZ 7 predictions linked by explicit conditioning. Phase 1: Leader prediction. Once an arm is designated as the leader, the bimanual demonstrations are stripped to single-arm format: only the leader arm’s actions are retained. The leader agent receives a system prompt, followed by the single-arm ICL demonstrations and the test observation: prompt L = o 1 >A L 1 , ... , o N >A L N , o test >(4) where A L i = [a L i,1 ,..., a L i,K i ] denotes the leader arm’s actions from demonstration i. Note that we omit any textual description of the task; the agent automati- cally infers the objective by recognizing patterns within the demonstrations. The leader agent generates the predicted leader trajectory ˆ A L = [ ˆ a L 1 ,..., ˆ a L ˆ K L ]. Phase 2: Follower prediction. The follower agent predicts its actions condi- tioned on the leader’s predicted trajectory. To achieve this, the in-context demon- strations are restructured: the leader arm’s ground-truth actions are embedded directly into the observation dictionary as an additional entry, creating an aug- mented observation: ̃ o i =obj 1 : [·],..., obj M : [·], leader_arm : [a L i,1 ,..., a L i,K i ],(5) and the demonstration actions are replaced with the follower’s single-arm actions A F i . Then, the leader’s predicted actions ˆ A L are inserted into the test observation to form the follower’s prompt: prompt F = ̃ o 1 >A F 1 , ... , ̃ o N >A F N , ̃ o test >(6) where ̃ o test = objects, leader_arm : ˆ A L . The follower agent generates the predicted follower trajectory ˆ A F = [ ˆ a F 1 ,..., ˆ a F ˆ K F ]. Action composition. The leader and follower trajectories are combined into the bimanual action sequence, mapping back to the right and left arms according to the leader assignment. If the two sequences differ in length, the shorter is extended by repeating its last action: ˆ a bi k = [ ˆ a R k , ˆ a L k ], k = 1,..., max( ˆ K L , ˆ K F ).(7) 3.3 Arms’ Debate: Iterative Symmetric Refinement BiCICLe is fundamentally asymmetric: the follower conditions on the leader, but not vice versa. Arms’ Debate addresses this with a second round of reversed Bimanual Robot Manipulation via Multi-Agent In-Context Learning7 Algorithm 1 Arms’ Debate 1: Input: Observation o test , demos D i N i=1 2: // Round 1: standard leader-follower 3: ˆ A L 1 ← Leader agent(prompt L (o test )) Leader predicts 4: ̃ o L test ←objects, leader_arm: ˆ A L 1 5: ˆ A F 1 ← Follower agent(prompt F ( ̃ o L test )) Follower conditioned on leader 6: // Round 2: reversed conditioning 7: ̃ o F test ←objects, follower_arm: ˆ A F 1 8: ˆ A L 2 ← Leader agent(prompt L ′ ( ̃ o F test )) Leader conditioned on follower 9: ̃ o L test ←objects, leader_arm: ˆ A L 2 10: ˆ A F 2 ← Follower agent(prompt F ( ̃ o L test )) Follower conditioned on refined leader 11: Output: [ ˆ A L 2 , ˆ A F 2 ] conditioning (Algorithm 1): the leader re-predicts conditioned on the follower’s plan, and the follower re-predicts conditioned on the refined leader’s plan. A natural approach would be multi-turn conversation, where each arm refines its plan by reasoning over the chat history of prior exchanges. However, append- ing successive predictions to the conversation inflates the context length and, in practice, degrades output quality (details in the Supplementary Material). Arms’ Debate sidesteps this by using fresh ICL prompts at every call: the other arm’s trajectory is embedded directly into the restructured demonstrations, so the LLM learns from examples how to coordinate with a given partner plan without retaining any conversation history. This acts as a stateless proxy of conversational refinement, preserving the iterative exchange while keeping each prompt compact. Arms’ Debate requires a total of four single-arm LLM calls per inference step (two full leader-follower rounds). 3.4 Best-of-N: Variance Reduction via LLM-as-Judge Evaluation Best-of-N exploits the stochasticity of LLM generation by producing multiple candidate plans and selecting the best via LLM-as-Judge evaluation. When used within this framework, the BiCICLe pipeline is executed n=5 times indepen- dently, producing candidates ˆ A bi j 5 j=1 . Each candidate is scored by a separate agent call that compares the pattern against the in-context demonstrations, outputting a consistency score s j ∈1,..., 5. The highest-scoring candidate is selected: j ∗ = arg max j s j . Best-of-N requires n leader-follower executions plus n LLM-as-Judge evaluation calls. This technique is related to self-consistency [43], adapted here from majority voting to LLM-as-Judge trajectory evaluation. 4 Experiments 4.1 Experimental Setup Benchmark and environment. We evaluate our approach on the TWIN benchmark [16], a bimanual extension of RLBench [21] that provides 13 bi- 8Palma et al. manual manipulation tasks with varying sequence lengths and coordination re- quirements. All experiments utilize CoppeliaSim [35] with a simulated bimanual Franka Panda robot and six RGB-D cameras at a 128× 128 resolution. Demonstrations and LLM backbone. For each task, 100 training demonstra- tions and 100 test demonstrations are generated using the oracular CoppeliaSim motion planner. Keyframes are extracted using the bimanual heuristic (Sec. 3.1) and grouped into batches of N = 10 ICL demonstrations. All training-free meth- ods in Table 1 utilize GPT-5-mini [38], and each task is evaluated over 3 seeds× 100 episodes. We additionally evaluate all ICL methods with Qwen 2.5 7B [34] to assess backbone agnosticism (Table 2). ICL baselines. All ICL baselines are adapted from single-arm methods to the bimanual setting. We denote monolithic approaches that predict joint actions for both arms as SA (Single Agent), and independent, per-arm approaches as DA (Dual Agent). RoboPrompt-SA / RoboPrompt-DA: Adapted from Robo- Prompt [48]. SA predicts bimanual actions in a single LLM call, while DA uses two independent calls with no inter-arm information sharing. KAT-SA / KAT-DA: Adapted from KAT [10]. These methods utilize DINO-ViT keypoint correspondences [1,6] instead of semantic object positions. VLM-LF: A leader- follower variant using RGB+depth front camera images instead of text-based observations. Supervised methods. We report results from several state-of-the-art super- vised methods for reference, which are sourced from [12]. PerAct 2 [15] extends the voxel-based Perceiver-Actor [37] to bimanual settings with dual-arm action heads. KStarDiffuser [31] is a diffusion graph convolutional network that regular- izes end-effector pose prediction by predicting body joint angles. π 0 -keypose [12] fine-tunes the generalist π 0 VLA model on keypose prediction. AnyBimanual [30] proposes a framework to combine and adapt two pre-trained single-arm policies. 3DFA [12], the current state of the art, uses 3D flow matching for bimanual action generation. Because these methods require training on large robotic datasets, they are not strictly comparable to our training-free approach, but serve as a robust upper-bound reference. 4.2 Main Results Table 1 reports success rates across all 13 tasks. The primary finding is that BiCICLe consistently outperforms all training-free ICL baselines across all eval- uated tasks. Supervised vs. ICL. Supervised methods (3DFA [12]: 85.1% average) can significantly outperform ICL approaches overall; as expected, they benefit im- mensely from training on large robot datasets. Our goal is not to match the su- pervised state of the art, but to establish a training-free paradigm that achieves strong performance without any gradient updates. Remarkably, the base BiCICLe leader-follower decomposition already achieves 70.5%, rising to 71.1% with Best-of-N sampling—substantially outperforming prior supervised methods such as ACT [52] (5.9%), PerAct 2 [15] (16.8%), π 0 - keypose [20] (43.7%), and AnyBimanual [30] (32%) on average. Our method Bimanual Robot Manipulation via Multi-Agent In-Context Learning9 Table 1: Success rates (%) on the TWIN benchmark. Mean ± std over 3 seeds × 100 episodes. Bold: best among non-supervised methods per task. Underline : second best.Gray rows : supervised methods; results reported from [12], – denotes unavailable results. MethodPush BoxDual ButtonsBottle FridgeHandoverHandover EasyLift BallLift TrayPick LaptopPick PlateStraighten RopeSweep DustpanTray OvenItem DrawerAvg. Supervised baselines (results from [12]) ACT [52]04000366001602135.9 RVT-LF [13]5239000176333031010.5 PerAct-LF [37]57100094014112212882717.5 PerAct 2 [15]6473114150112424091016.8 DP3 [49]56–064–6.3–1.7– KStarDiffuser [31]83–2798.7–43.7–89– PPI [47]96.7–62.789.39246.3–98.7–79.7– AnyBimanual [30]4673261544361478246724–32 π 0 -keypose [20]9338222599772274172684043.7 3DFA [12]92.7 ±0.47 92.7 ±1.89 89.3 ±1.89 89.0 ±7.12 96.0 ±5.65 99.7 ±0.47 94.7 ±0.47 74.0 ±8.96 69.7 ±12.6 40.7 ±1.89 99.3 ±0.47 94.7 ±1.89 93.0 ±2.83 85.1 ICL baselines (training-free) VLM-LF59.0±7.0 6.3±1.2 7.0±1.6 6.7±0.5 8.3±1.2 11.3±1.2 8.0±0.8 5.7±0.9 7.7±1.2 3.0±0.0 31.0±4.2 10.0±2.4 10.0±0.813.4 KAT-SA [10]60.0±2.0 4.3±2.5 11.7±1.5 4.0±1.0 33.7±2.5 42.3±4.5 17.0±1.0 2.3±0.5 3.7±0.5 2.7±0.5 55.3±0.5 10.0±1.0 16.3±3.520.3 KAT-DA [10]50.7±5.0 3.0±2.0 17.3±2.0 4.0±1.0 30.7±9.5 19.0±2.0 11.3±0.5 0.3±0.5 2.3±0.5 1.7±0.5 74.3±1.5 6.0±0.0 6.0±3.017.4 RoboPrompt-SA [48]94.0±0.8 100.0±0.0 82.0±3.683.7±2.6 64.7±2.1 78.7±5.2 58.7±4.0 18.0±3.0 44.0±1.6 11.7±1.7 89.3±1.9 26.3±2.3 37.3±3.160.6 RoboPrompt-DA [48]83.0±2.8 100.0±0.0 80.0±2.9 82.7±3.7 63.3±3.4 69.3±0.5 79.3±2.6 24.3±2.1 61.0±2.0 23.3±2.3 93.7±0.9 30.0±1.747.0±2.964.4 BiCICLe99.0±1.0 100.0±0.0 80.3±2.9 94.3±1.5 68.0±2.6 83.7±2.383.0±2.929.0±2.065.3±2.434.3±2.1 97.3±1.236.0±1.4 46.7±2.470.5 + Arms’ Debate97.0±1.0 100.0±0.0 83.3±2.1 94.3±2.1 70.3±2.380.0±2.4 83.0±2.428.0±2.2 65.3±2.133.3±2.396.0±1.6 36.0±1.6 47.3±1.970.3 + Best-of-N97.7±0.6100.0±0.0 81.7±2.4 94.0±2.273.7±2.9 85.0±3.0 84.7±2.1 29.3±1.5 72.7±1.9 31.7±1.7 98.3±0.6 33.7±1.2 42.3±3.171.1 even surpasses the supervised SOTA on individual tasks such as Push Box, Dual Buttons, and Handover, demonstrating that training-free ICL is a highly viable paradigm for bimanual manipulation. SA vs. DA: a taxonomy-based analysis. To understand the conditions under which monolithic (SA) versus independent (DA) prediction excels, we analyze results through the bimanual manipulation taxonomy of Krebs and Asfour [25]. This taxonomy classifies tasks along a coupling spectrum: loosely coupled (co- ordination limited to discrete temporal synchronization points), tightly coupled asymmetric (distinct hand roles), and tightly coupled symmetric (identical hand roles, correlated motion). On tightly coupled symmetric tasks—Push Box, Lift Ball, and Lift Tray— where both arms must execute highly correlated, synchronized motions, SA en- joys a natural advantage on the simpler instances. It outperforms DA by 11.0 percentage points on Push Box and 9.4 percentage points on Lift Ball, because the jointZ 14 prediction implicitly captures the inter-arm correlation. However, this advantage vanishes as task complexity increases: on Lift Tray, DA surpasses SA by a striking 20.6 percentage points. The more demanding precision required for grasping the tray edges overwhelms the monolithic predictor despite its in- herent coordination benefit. On tightly coupled asymmetric tasks—Pick Plate, Pick Laptop, Handover, Straighten Rope, Sweep Dustpan—the arms assume distinct roles (e.g., one holds while the other manipulates). Here, DA consistently outperforms SA: by 17.0 percentage points on Pick Plate, 11.6 on Straighten Rope, and 6.3 on Pick Laptop. Per-arm specialization proves crucial when each arm requires a qualita- tively different motion plan. 10Palma et al. On loosely coupled tasks—Dual Buttons, Item Drawer, Bottle Fridge, Tray Oven—the performance gap is generally smaller (≤ 9.7 percentage points), since the arms act largely independently and temporal coordination is minimal. DA holds a moderate advantage on Item Drawer (+9.7) and Tray Oven (+3.7), consistent with the low coordination requirements that favor decomposed, per- arm prediction. BiCICLe: merging the best of both worlds. The taxonomy-based analysis reveals a fundamental tension: SA excels at synchronized symmetric tasks but struggles with high-dimensional prediction, while DA handles diverse roles but lacks inter-arm coordination. BiCICLe resolves this tension through the leader- follower decomposition, which retains the lowerZ 7 dimensionality of DA while reintroducing explicit inter-arm conditioning. Across all three taxonomy cate- gories, BiCICLe matches or exceeds the better of SA and DA: on symmetric tasks, it achieves 99.0% on Push Box (+5.0 over SA), 83.7% on Lift Ball (+5.0 over SA), and 83.0% on Lift Tray (+3.7 over DA); on asymmetric tasks, it reaches 65.3% on Pick Plate (+4.3 over DA), 34.3% on Straighten Rope (+11.0 over DA), and 94.3% on Handover (+10.6 over SA); on loosely coupled tasks, it improves on Tray Oven (36.0%, +6.0 over DA), matching DA on Item Drawer (46.7≈ 47.0) and SA on Bottle Fridge (80.3≈ 82.0). The gains are largest on tasks where both coordination and dimensionality matter simultaneously—e.g., Straighten Rope (an improvement of 22.6 percent- age points over SA and 11.0 over DA), where the asymmetric, physically coupled manipulation requires both low-dimensional prediction and inter-arm condition- ing. The asymmetry of the decomposition is well-motivated: many bimanual tasks naturally exhibit a primary-secondary structure [25], and even for sym- metric tasks (e.g., Lift Ball), conditioning one arm on the other provides suffi- cient coordination information. The inference-time refinement strategies further amplify these gains: Best-of-N sampling raises Lift Ball to 85.0%, Lift Tray to 84.7%, and Pick Plate to 72.7% (+11.7 over DA), while Arms’ Debate pushes Bottle Fridge to 83.3% and Item Drawer to 47.3%—both surpassing the previ- ously unbeaten baselines on those tasks. Observation representations. The KAT baselines, utilizing DINO-ViT key- point correspondences, drastically underperform text-based baselines. This sug- gests that semantic object identities (obtained from simulation masks or pose estimation models) provide a far more informative observation representation than appearance-based keypoints for the ICL paradigm, particularly in bimanual settings where precise object-relative positioning is critical. VLM-LF (13.4%), despite accessing visual information through RGB+depth images, sits at the bottom of the rankings, indicating that discretized text-based observations al- ready capture the spatial information necessary for bimanual coordination in this benchmark. Failure cases and limitations. Several tasks remain challenging for all ICL methods. Straighten Rope (34.3%), Pick Laptop (29.0%), and Tray Oven (36.0%) yield the lowest absolute success rates among BiCICLe predictions, reflecting the inherent difficulty of tasks requiring fine-grained contact manipulation or long- Bimanual Robot Manipulation via Multi-Agent In-Context Learning11 Table 2: Backbone agnosticism: Qwen 2.5 7B [34]. Success rates (%) on the TWIN benchmark using a 7B open-source backbone. Mean ± std over 3 seeds × 100 episodes. Bold: best per task. Underline : second best. MethodPush BoxDual ButtonsBottle FridgeHandoverHandover EasyLift BallLift TrayPick LaptopPick PlateStraighten RopeSweep DustpanTray OvenItem DrawerAvg. VLM-LF51.0±4.6 1.3±2.3 3.3±2.3 2.3±1.2 3.7±0.5 3.7±2.1 2.7±1.9 1.7±1.5 3.0±0.8 0.0±0.0 24.3±3.2 4.7±1.9 4.0±1.48.1 KAT-SA [10]53.3±1.7 2.3±1.5 6.7±2.3 0.0±0.0 16.3±1.7 34.7±3.7 11.0±0.8 1.3±0.5 2.3±0.6 0.0±0.0 41.3±0.6 3.7±2.1 9.3±4.214.0 KAT-DA [10]41.7±3.2 2.7±1.9 14.0±3.3 1.0±0.8 22.7±7.2 12.3±1.9 9.0±0.8 0.7±0.5 1.7±1.2 0.3±0.5 54.0±0.8 2.3±1.2 3.0±2.012.7 RoboPrompt-SA [48]94.7±0.5 100.0±0.0 68.0±5.0 82.0±2.4 62.7±4.7 55.7±1.7 19.7±2.9 5.3±0.5 20.7±0.9 11.3±2.5 91.3±1.2 16.3±0.9 47.0±2.251.9 RoboPrompt-DA [48] 94.3±2.1100.0±0.0 78.7±2.4 64.7±1.7 38.3±3.7 47.0±2.2 19.7±3.1 6.3±1.7 37.3±1.213.3±0.9 99.3±0.5 21.7±2.140.7±2.651.6 BiCICLe83.0±2.4 100.0±0.0 83.0±1.4 83.7±1.753.0±1.6 56.7±2.522.7±4.2 12.0±1.4 40.3±3.8 16.7±2.1 99.3±0.5 20.7±1.7 51.3±2.555.6 + Arms’ Debate84.3±3.3 100.0±0.0 80.7±4.079.3±1.2 57.7±5.757.3±4.6 25.7±3.310.0±2.232.0±3.7 20.0±2.9 99.0±0.821.7±2.5 51.0±7.155.3 + Best-of-N92.7±2.9 100.0±0.0 79.7±1.9 84.3±2.9 43.7±5.3 60.0±2.2 25.7±1.2 9.7±4.2 40.3±0.9 18.7±1.799.3±0.9 30.0±1.0 49.7±5.956.5 horizon, multi-step coordination. Specifically, our reliance on spatial voxelization (100 3 resolution) and discretized rotation bins fundamentally limits the contin- uous precision required for delicate maneuvers, such as grasping a thin rope or sliding a laptop. Furthermore, on loosely coupled tasks such as Item Drawer and Bottle Fridge, the base leader-follower (46.7% and 80.3%) does not outperform the best baselines (RoboPrompt-DA at 47.0% and RoboPrompt-SA at 82.0%); Arms’ Debate marginally closes this gap (47.3% and 83.3%, respectively). When the arms act largely independently, the leader-follower conditioning alone pro- vides minimal benefit, and the refinement strategies account for the marginal gains. Backbone Agnosticism. To verify that BiCICLe does not rely on the emer- gent capabilities of a specific proprietary LLM, we replicate our in-context ex- periments using Qwen 2.5 7B [34], and Qwen 2.5VL 7B [2] for the VLM-LF. Even with this substantially smaller open-source backbone, the relative perfor- mance ranking is fully preserved (Table 2). We further leverage this 7B model to ablate the structural assignment of the leader. When defaulting the left arm as the leader instead of the right, BiCICLe maintains an average success rate of 53.5%. This confirms that the critical factor for success is the explicit sequential conditioning itself, rather than the specific topological choice of which arm leads the sequence. As expected, all methods incur a performance drop with the smaller back- bone; however, the relative ranking is fully preserved: BiCICLe with Best-of-N (56.5%) outperforms the best baseline (RoboPrompt-SA, 51.9%) by 4.6 per- centage points, confirming that the leader-follower decomposition provides a consistent architectural advantage independent of model capacity. The per-task breakdown mirrors the patterns observed with GPT-5-mini: BiCICLe dominates on asymmetric and fine-grained tasks (Bottle Fridge, Pick Plate, Pick Laptop, Item Drawer), while Best-of-N yields the largest gains on symmetric tasks re- quiring precise coordination (Lift Ball 60.0% vs. 56.7%, Tray Oven 30.0% vs. 20.7%). Notably, even with a 7B open-source model, BiCICLe surpasses sev- eral supervised methods including PerAct 2 (16.8%) and AnyBimanual (32%), reinforcing the viability of training-free ICL across different backbone scales. 12Palma et al. Fig. 3: New generalization tasks. Two bimanual tasks designed outside the TWIN benchmark. (Top) Close Jar. (Bottom) Take Item Out of Box. Generalization to New Tasks. A key advantage of ICL over supervised meth- ods is the ability to generalize to novel tasks without retraining, as providing a few demonstrations at test time is sufficient. To evaluate this, we design two new bimanual tasks (Fig. 3) that are not part of the original TWIN benchmark: – Close Jar: One arm hands over the lid and then holds a jar in place, while the other picks up the lid and places it on top of the target jar. – Take Item Out of Box: One arm lifts the box lid open while the other grasps the item inside and places it on the table. We compare BiCICLe against 3DFA, fine-tuned on only N = 10 demon- strations per task for 80,000 steps. BiCICLe uses the same demonstrations as in-context examples, requiring no training. Both methods are evaluated on 100 episodes per task. Table 3: Generalization. Success rates (%) on two tasks outside the TWIN bench- mark. 3DFA-ft: 3DFA fine-tuned on 10 demonstrations. MethodClose Jar Take ItemAvg. 3DFA-ft [12]11910.0 BiCICLe614854.5 Table 3 reveals a striking gap: BiCICLe achieves 54.5% average success com- pared to only 10.0% for fine-tuned 3DFA. Despite being the state of the art on the TWIN benchmark, 3DFA struggles dramatically when confronted with out-of-distribution tasks in the low-data regime, confirming that its strong in- distribution performance does not transfer to novel scenarios without sufficient training data. In contrast, BiCICLe requires no gradient updates and general- izes to entirely new tasks simply by receiving new demonstrations in the prompt, highlighting a fundamental advantage of our approach. Bimanual Robot Manipulation via Multi-Agent In-Context Learning13 Fig. 4: Qualitative comparison. Each pair of rows contrasts a successful BiCI- CLe episode (✓) with a failed baseline episode (✗) on the same task. (Top two rows) Lift Ball (tightly coupled symmetric): BiCICLe vs. RoboPrompt-SA. (Bottom two rows) Tray Oven (loosely coupled): BiCICLe vs. RoboPrompt-DA. Columns show four keyframes sampled along the trajectory (left to right: initial approach, contact, manipulation, outcome). 4.3 Qualitative Analysis Figure 4 contrasts BiCICLe against the best-suited baseline architecture on two tasks from opposite ends of the coupling spectrum. Lift Ball (tightly coupled symmetric). In this task, both arms must ap- proach the ball from opposite sides and simultaneously lift it. In the BiCICLe episode (Row 1), the leader arm initiates contact from the left in Frame 2, and the follower mirrors the approach from the right, resulting in a balanced, sym- metric grasp. By Frame 4, both arms have risen in unison and the ball is stably lifted—the explicit conditioning of the follower on the leader’s trajectory enables the temporal synchronization necessary for this task. In the RoboPrompt-SA episode (Row 2), the monolithicZ 14 prediction struggles with per-arm preci- sion: both arms converge toward the ball, but one arm applies contact with a slightly incorrect orientation. By Frame 4, the ball has rolled off the table. Despite SA’s inherent advantage at capturing inter-arm correlation, the high di- mensionality of the joint prediction space degrades the quality of individual arm trajectories—precisely the failure mode that the leader-follower decomposition avoids by halving the per-step prediction burden. Tray Oven (loosely coupled). This multi-step task requires one arm to open the oven door and the other to extract the tray—a loosely coupled interaction 14Palma et al. with a sequential dependency. In the BiCICLe episode (Row 3), the leader arm opens the oven door (Frames 1–2), and the follower, conditioned on the leader’s completed action, reaches into the oven and grasps the tray (Frames 3–4). The sequential leader-follower structure naturally captures the temporal ordering of this task. In the RoboPrompt-DA episode (Row 4), the two independent agents lack any information sharing. The arms move without coordination: the tray- grasping arm reaches into the oven while the door is not yet fully open (Frame 2), resulting in a collision and no possibility of extracting the tray. By Frame 4, the tray remains inside. This failure exemplifies how even loosely coupled tasks can require minimal temporal coordination that independent prediction fails to provide, despite DA’s otherwise reasonable performance on this task category. Overall, these qualitative examples confirm that our decomposition—a sin- gle, task-agnostic architectural choice—effectively bridges the dimensionality– coordination trade-off across the full spectrum of bimanual coupling, supporting the quantitative findings of Sec. 4.2 and establishing training-free ICL as a viable paradigm for multi-arm manipulation. 5 Conclusion Limitations While our simulation experiments rely on ground-truth segmen- tation masks, real-world deployment necessitates robust open-vocabulary object detection and 3D perception pipelines, which can inherently introduce noise. Additionally, the action discretization granularity (100 3 voxels, 5 ◦ rotation bins) fundamentally limits the continuous precision required for highly delicate ma- nipulation. The approach is also bounded by the LLM context window, which restricts the maximum number of in-context demonstrations and the complexity of long-horizon tasks. We presented BiCICLe, the first in-context learning framework for biman- ual robotic manipulation. The core contribution is a leader-follower decomposi- tion that factors bimanual action prediction into two sequential single-arm pre- dictions linked by explicit conditioning: the follower arm observes the leader’s planned trajectory as part of its input and synchronizes accordingly. This de- composition addresses the dual challenge of maintaining low prediction dimen- sionality while preserving inter-arm coordination, enabling off-the-shelf LLMs to serve as effective bimanual policies without any fine-tuning. Complementary inference-time strategies, Arms’ Debate for iterative refinement and Best-of-N for LLM-as-Judge evaluation, further improve trajectory quality. Evaluated on 13 tasks from the TWIN benchmark, our leader-follower architecture consis- tently outperforms all training-free baselines and several supervised methods. 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Supplementary Material The supplementary material provides the following additional details: – Sec. A presents real-world experiments on a physical bimanual Franka Panda system; – Sec. B provides extended ablation studies on leader arm assignment, conver- sational refinement, observation representations, and point-cloud extraction in simulation; – Sec. C describes the adaptation of an ICL-capable Vision-Language-Action model for bimanual manipulation and compares it with BiCICLe; – Sec. D investigates combining Arms’ Debate and Best-of-N; – Sec. E reports LLM call statistics and inference latency; – Sec. F lists the full prompt templates used by BiCICLe and its extensions. A Real-World Experiments To validate the sim-to-real transferability of BiCICLe, we deploy the framework on a physical bimanual Franka Panda system. This section describes the hard- ware setup, and the quantitative results on two tasks. Experimental setup. We use a dual robot setup of two Franka Panda (Re- search 3) robots, and collect 15 total demonstrations per task via kinesthetic teaching to record the key poses. We use a Stereolabs ZED X Camera from an egocentric viewpoint to run FoundationPose [45] to track the 6D poses of the objects in the scene. We discretize the scene in a similar manner as in simula- tion, with slightly different bounds to fit the workspace of the dual robot system. Contrary to simulation, we found rotations to be consistently estimated in the real world, and add the yaw of the objects as part of the observation. The agent predicts 6D end-effector poses and gripper configuration for both robots, which are controlled using MoveIt [9] for motion planning to the predicted end-effector poses. As in simulation, for each test episode we use N = 10 ICL demonstrations sampled at random. We evaluate the system on two tasks, illustrated in Fig. 5. The first is a bimanual box lifting task, which involves a strong coupling between the arms to coordinate their motions to jointly lift a box-like container after being grasped on opposite sides by each arm. The second task involves opening the lid of a cooking pot with one arm, while the other arm holds the pot down by the handle. We evaluate our approach over 10 trials for each task with varying object locations within the workspace of the robot. Results and Discussion We obtain a 60% success rate on the bimanual box lifting task. Failures were primarily due to incorrectly predicted grasp poses, resulting in one or both arms failing to achieve a stable grasp on the box. We found performance to be additionally sensitive to the discretisation resolution, as a coarser grid led to systematic gripper misalignment. For the lid opening task, we obtain a success rate of 40% for grasping the handle and opening the lid accurately. Some failure modes mainly stem from the leader arm not being able Bimanual Robot Manipulation via Multi-Agent In-Context Learning21 to accurately grasp the handle due to its small size, which can be compounded when initial pose estimates are noisy. We do not count such cases as successful even if the lid is successfully opened by the follower arm. Fig. 5: Real-world task executions. Top row: Lift Box task. Bottom row: Open Pot task. Both tasks are completed successfully by BiCICLe deployed on a physical bimanual Franka Panda system. These results demonstrate that our approach can be deployed on real world systems capable of executing physically demanding bimanual tasks, including those requiring tight inter-arm coordination and fine manipulation, with a low number of demonstrations and no hardware-specific retraining. This validates the core design choice of grounding the method in pose-based representations and LLM-driven In-Context Learning, both of which can seamlessly generalize across the sim-to-real boundary. B Ablation Studies We ablate the key design choices of BiCICLe on the TWIN benchmark. Unless stated otherwise, all ablation experiments use GPT-5-mini as the backbone and a single evaluation seed (100 episodes per task). B.1 Leader Arm Assignment BiCICLe designates one arm as the leader and the other as the follower. By default, the right arm leads. To verify that this choice does not introduce a systematic bias, we evaluate a variant in which the left arm leads instead. Table 4 shows that, for both backbones, switching the leader arm has a modest effect on overall performance. With GPT-5-mini, the gap is only 1.3 percentage points (70.5% right versus 69.2% left), and per-task differences are inconsistent in direction—the left arm even outperforms the right on Bottle Fridge (83 vs 80.3), Straighten Rope (38 vs 34.3), and Sweep Dustpan (99 vs 97.3). With Qwen 2.5 7B the gap widens slightly to 2.1 p (55.6% versus 53.5%) and the right leader wins on 9 of 13 tasks, yet most individual differences remain 22Palma et al. Table 4: Ablation: Leader arm choice. Success rates (%) on the TWIN benchmark for two backbones: GPT-5-mini and Qwen 2.5 7B. Right arm results from main paper. Bold: best per task within each backbone. LeaderPush BoxDual ButtonsBottle FridgeHandoverHandover EasyLift BallLift TrayPick LaptopPick PlateStraighten RopeSweep DustpanTray OvenItem DrawerAvg. GPT-5-mini [38] Right (default)99 100 80.3 94.3 68 83.7 83 29 65.3 34.3 97.3 36 46.770.5 Left94 100 83 94 60 79 83 30 57 3899 36 4769.2 Qwen 2.5 7B [34] Right (default) 83 100 83 83.7 53 56.7 22.7 12 40.3 16.7 99.3 20.7 51.355.6 Left94 100 81 82 52 51 18 5 3515 100 21 4153.5 within 5 p; the only large swings are Push Box, where the left leader improves by +11 p, and Item Drawer, where the right leader gains +10.3 p. Across both models, the tasks where the left arm falls most—Handover Easy and Pick Plate (GPT-5-mini); Pick Laptop and Item Drawer (Qwen)—are inher- ently “right-handed”: the right arm performs the primary manipulation (grasp- ing, lifting, or placing), so designating it as leader naturally aligns the decom- position with the task’s role structure. When the left arm leads instead, the follower must execute the more demanding action conditioned on a less infor- mative leader plan. These consistent patterns confirm that the sequential condi- tioning is largely agnostic to leader assignment across model scales, with residual gaps attributable to the intrinsic handedness of individual tasks rather than an architectural bias. B.2 Conversational Refinement vs. Arms’ Debate A natural alternative to Arms’ Debate (Sec. 3.3 of the main paper) is a multi- turn conversational exchange, where each arm appends its prediction to the chat history and the other arm is asked to explicitly refine its plan by attending to the full context. The two variants differ in how the partner’s plan is injected: Arms’ Debate embeds it into fresh ICL prompts with reversed conditioning, while Conversation accumulates it in a shared chat history. Table 5 shows a stark gap: Arms’ Debate achieves 70.3% average success, while the conversational variant reaches only 57.5%—12.8 percentage points lower. The gap is concentrated on the two handover tasks, where Conversa- tion collapses to 15% and 21% versus Arms’ Debate’s 94.3% and 70.3%, and on Item Drawer (32 vs 47.3) and Bottle Fridge (74 vs 83.3). Conversation wins only on Lift Tray (92 vs 83), Sweep Dustpan (99 vs 96), and Straighten Rope (36 vs 33.3), mostly by a small margin. To understand why the conversational variant fails, we inspect the raw LLM predictions. In the conversational protocol, the leader first produces an initial Bimanual Robot Manipulation via Multi-Agent In-Context Learning23 Table 5: Ablation: Conversation vs. Arms’ Debate. Conversation appends pre- dictions to the chat history for multi-turn refinement. Arms’ Debate uses fresh ICL prompts at every call with the partner’s trajectory embedded in the demonstrations. Both variants use four agent calls per step. Arms’ Debate results from the main paper. VariantPush BoxDual ButtonsBottle FridgeHandoverHandover EasyLift BallLift TrayPick LaptopPick PlateStraighten RopeSweep DustpanTray OvenItem DrawerAvg. Arms’ Debate97 100 83.3 94.3 70.3 80 83 28 65.3 33.396 36 47.370.3 Conversation93 100 74 15 21 78 92 27 47 3699 33 3257.5 plan via standard ICL, the follower then produces its plan conditioned on the leader’s; both plans are appended to the chat, and a second round of “refinement” calls asks each arm to revise its trajectory. We find that this refinement step systematically corrupts the leader’s predictions in three ways: 1. Gripper-state inversion. In the handover tasks, the initial leader correctly reproduces the two-phase pattern from the demonstrations (gripper open dur- ing approach, then closed for transfer). After refinement, the first actions are flipped from open to closed and then reopened, inverting the grasp timing. 2. Spatial coordinate drift. The leader’s initial trajectory exhibits a clear y- coordinate phase transition (e.g., y=30 during approach, y=45 during trans- fer). In the refined plan, this transition is lost: all actions collapse to a single y-value, eliminating the spatial phase structure that the ICL examples encode. 3. Cross-arm coordinate leakage. In severe cases, the x-coordinate of the refined leader shifts toward values characteristic of the follower’s workspace (e.g., x=52 → 30), suggesting the model conflates the two arms’ coordinate frames when attending to the accumulated conversational context. The follower’s refined predictions, by contrast, remain largely unchanged from their initial values—the corruption is asymmetric and affects primarily the leader, whose initial plan was produced without seeing the partner’s trajectory and is therefore most vulnerable to context-induced drift. These findings empirically validate the design of Arms’ Debate: by embedding the partner trajectory di- rectly into fresh ICL prompts rather than appending it to a shared chat history, Arms’ Debate preserves the pattern-completion mechanism that underpins in- context learning, avoiding the context accumulation that destabilizes the con- versational variant. B.3 Including Rotations in Observations As described in Sec. 3.1 of the main paper, our default observation representation consists of discretized 3D object centroids only. We evaluate an alternative that additionally includes Euler-angle rotations for each object, moving the per-object observation fromZ 3 toZ 6 . 24Palma et al. Table 6: Ablation: Including rotations in observations. Positions only (de- fault) includes only discretized 3D object centroids in the observation. + Rotations additionally includes the discretized Euler-angle orientation of each object. Positions only results from the main paper. ObservationsPush BoxDual ButtonsBottle FridgeHandoverHandover EasyLift BallLift TrayPick LaptopPick PlateStraighten RopeSweep DustpanTray OvenItem DrawerAvg. Positions only (default)99 100 80.3 94.3 68 83.7 83 29 65.3 34.3 97.3 36 46.770.5 + Rotations99 100 78 77 69 73 76 32 72 1998 22 3265.2 Table 6 shows that adding rotations reduces the average success rate from 70.5% to 65.2% (−5.3 p). The degradation is severe on Handover (94.3→ 77), Straighten Rope (34.3 → 19), Item Drawer (46.7 → 32), Tray Oven (36 → 22), Lift Ball (83.7 → 73), and Lift Tray (83 → 76). Only Pick Plate (65.3 → 72) and Pick Laptop (29→ 32) improve. Rotations are obtained by fitting an Open3D Oriented Bounding Box (OBB) to the merged multi-view point cloud of each object, converting the OBB rotation matrix to xyz Euler angles, and discretizing at 5 ◦ resolution into integers in [0, 71]. Each object observation thus doubles its dimensionality. Also here, we identify three factors behind the degradation: 1. High rotation variance across demonstrations. Inspecting the ICL prompts reveals that the rotation triple of randomly-oriented objects varies dramati- cally across the in-context examples—e.g., for the handover items we observe orientations such as [70, 44, 6], [13, 38, 50], [1, 39, 27], and [52, 35, 17] for the same object class. In contrast, positions change smoothly from example to example. These erratic rotation values break the pattern structure that in- context learning relies on. 2. Euler-angle discontinuities. Discretized xyz Euler angles are a poor metric space for SO(3): they suffer from gimbal lock and wrap-around at 0/72, so two physically close orientations can map to very different integer triples. While the corresponding action space also uses discretized Euler angles, the action sequence exhibits a smooth trajectory that the LLM can extrapolate; observation rotations, by contrast, are unordered across demonstrations and thus appear as random noise. 3. Dilution of the positional signal. Doubling the observation from 3 to 6 tokens per object lengthens the context and reduces the relative salience of the spatial coordinates that actually drive the task. This dilution effect is especially harmful for tasks with many objects (handover has five items, each contributing three extra tokens). The exception is Pick Plate (+6.7 p): the plate consistently lies flat on the table, yielding stable rotation values across demonstrations (typically [36, 36,·]), and its in-plane yaw encodes the approach angle needed for a successful bimanual grasp. This confirms that rotations can be informative when they are consistent across Bimanual Robot Manipulation via Multi-Agent In-Context Learning25 examples; for most tasks, however, the OBB-estimated Euler angles introduce more noise than signal, making position-only observations the better default. B.4 Point-Cloud Extraction Methods Object positions are extracted from segmented point clouds across six RGB-D cameras and computing centroids (Sec. 3.1 of the main paper). For each object, the segmentation mask selects the relevant 3D points from each camera’s depth- reconstructed point cloud. We compare three strategies for combining these per- camera point sets into a single centroid estimate: – Standard: computes the centroid of the segmented points independently in each camera view, then averages the per-camera centroids. This treats each viewpoint equally but is sensitive to cameras that see only a small or skewed portion of the object. – Concatenation: concatenates all segmented points from all cameras into a single point cloud and computes the centroid over the merged set. This weights each view proportionally to the number of visible surface points, giving more influence to closer or less occluded viewpoints. – Prune: same as Concatenation, but applies a voxel downsampling step [53] (voxel size 0.02 m) before computing the centroid. Downsampling regularizes the point density across views, preventing cameras with denser depth maps from dominating the centroid estimate. Table 7: Ablation: Point-cloud extraction method. Average per-object Euclidean distance to ground-truth centroid (in cm, ↓ is better) for three point-cloud extraction variants: Prune (voxel-downsampled merging), Standard (per-camera centroid aver- aging), and Concatenation (multi-view point merging). Lower values indicate more accurate object localisation. Prune is used as default throughout the paper. MethodPush BoxDual ButtonsBottle FridgeHandoverHandover EasyLift BallLift TrayPick LaptopPick PlateStraighten RopeSweep DustpanTray OvenItem DrawerAvg. Prune (default)4.56 1.10 2.36 0.87 0.92 6.08 0.28 0.19 1.09 0.49 11.02 11.32 4.523.45 Standard6.77 1.16 8.95 1.69 2.69 10.05 1.40 1.50 1.19 0.70 14.12 16.43 9.125.83 Concatenation6.20 1.13 5.12 1.69 2.76 10.06 0.81 0.82 1.11 0.52 12.07 19.85 9.235.49 Table 7 reports the average Euclidean distance (in cm) between the estimated and ground-truth centroids. Prune consistently achieves the lowest error across all 13 tasks, reducing the overall average from 5.83 (Standard) and 5.49 (Con- catenation) to 3.45 cm—a 41% relative improvement over Standard. The gains are largest on tasks with small or partially occluded objects: Handover Easy (2.69→ 0.92), Pick Laptop (1.50→ 0.19), and Bottle Fridge (8.95→ 2.36). We adopt Prune as the default throughout all experiments in the main paper. 26Palma et al. C RICL: Adapting a Vision-Language-Action Model for Bimanual ICL In the main paper, all our evaluated methods are training-free: the LLM re- ceives only text-based ICL demonstrations (visual-based only for the VLM-LF approach), and produces discretized actions without any gradient updates. A natural question is whether a trained Vision-Language-Action (VLA) model can likewise benefit from in-context demonstrations in the bimanual setting. We in- vestigate this through RICL (Retraining VLAs for In-Context Learning) [41], which augments VLA inference with retrieved demonstrations. Architecture. RICL employs π 0 -FAST-DROID [33], a flow-matching VLA based on π 0 [3] and fine-tuned on the DROID dataset [22], that predicts 15-step action chunks for a Franka Panda arm from three RGB camera views and the current joint state. Because π 0 -FAST-DROID is a single-arm policy, we instantiate two independent server processes—one retrieving ICL data for the right-arm agent, and one for the left-arm agent. To avoid drift at inference time, the agent queries both servers in parallel and integrates the predicted velocity chunks to obtain target joint configurations for each arm, which are executed by the simulator’s built-in joint-position controller. In-context demonstrations for VLAs. Unlike text-based ICL, where textual demonstrations are serialized into the prompt, RICL prepends visual demon- strations to the query observation. Each demonstration is a single timestep from a training episode and consists of three 224×224 RGB camera views (front, over-shoulder, wrist), the 8-dimensional proprioceptive state (7 joint positions + gripper), the corresponding action chunk (15 joint-velocity steps), and a lan- guage prompt. At inference, the front-camera view of the current observation is embedded with DINOv2 and matched against a FAISS index built over all training timesteps; the N=4 nearest neighbours are retrieved and prepended to the query observation before being fed to the VLA. The model is thus condi- tioned on visually similar demonstration contexts, analogous to the text-based ICL demonstrations used by our LLM-based agents. Bimanual adaptation. The dual-server setup mirrors the Dual Agent (DA) baseline from the main paper: the two arms predict independently with no ex- plicit inter-arm coordination. The key difference is that RICL processes raw visual observations (three camera views per arm) rather than discretized text- based object positions, and outputs continuous joint-velocity trajectories rather than discretized keyframe actions. Results. Tab. 8 reports per-task success rates for RICL compared with the training-free BiCICLe base pipeline. RICL achieves 12.4% average success, substantially below both BiCICLe (70.5%) and even π 0 -keypose (43.7%), a supervised π 0 variant fine-tuned di- rectly on the TWIN benchmark to predict keyposes. This gap is unsurprising given two compounding factors. First, visual-based ICL is inherently limited. VLM-LF, the visual-observation ICL baseline in the main paper, achieves only 13.4%—nearly identical to RICL’s Bimanual Robot Manipulation via Multi-Agent In-Context Learning27 Table 8: VLAs vs. BiCICLe on the TWIN benchmark. Success rates (%). BiCICLe results from the main paper. Gray : supervised method (results from [12]). MethodPush BoxDual ButtonsBottle FridgeHandoverHandover EasyLift BallLift TrayPick LaptopPick PlateStraighten RopeSweep DustpanTray OvenItem DrawerAvg. π 0 -keypose [20]9338222599772274172684043.7 BiCICLe99 100 80.3 94.3 68 83.7 83 29 65.3 34.3 97.3 36 46.770.5 RICL [41]53 69214 16 72403211512.4 12.4%—despite leveraging a strong VLM backbone. This confirms that condi- tioning on raw pixel similarity provides far less task-relevant information than the discretized text observations used by BiCICLe, particularly for bimanual tasks that require precise spatial coordination between arms. Second, VLAs require benchmark-specific fine-tuning to perform well. π 0 - keypose was explicitly fine-tuned on TWIN training data, yet still falls short of the training-free BiCICLe pipeline. RICL, which uses a DROID-trained check- point with no TWIN-specific training, faces a severe domain gap: the DROID dataset consists exclusively of single-arm Franka tabletop episodes, whereas TWIN features bimanual tasks with different object geometries, scene layouts, and dynamics. Despite π 0 being pre-trained on over 900 million timesteps of di- verse robot data, the model cannot bridge this gap through retrieval-augmented ICL alone. This highlights a fundamental limitation of the VLA paradigm: when the deployment domain diverges from the training distribution, further fine- tuning is required, which directly undermines the appeal of in-context learning as a training-free adaptation mechanism. D Combining Arms’ Debate and Best-of-N The main paper evaluates Arms’ Debate (Sec. 3.3) and Best-of-N (Sec. 3.4) as independent inference-time refinement strategies applied on top of BiCICLe. This is to demonstrate that our method is naturally compatible with standard test-time scaling approaches used in the agentic literature. A natural extension is to combine both: generate N = 5 Arms’ Debate trajectories and select the best via the LLM-as-Judge. This combined strategy requires 4N+N = 5N = 25 agent calls per inference step, compared to 4 for Arms’ Debate alone and 2N +N = 15 for Best-of-N with the base leader-follower. Results. Table 9 presents the performance of the combined strategy compared to the base method and individual refinements. The combined strategy yields an average success rate of 70.8%, slightly outperforming the base method (70.5%) and Arms’ Debate (70.3%), while performance is comparable to Best-of-N alone (71.1%). While it does not yield consistent additive gains across all tasks, the 28Palma et al. combined strategy achieves state-of-the-art results on several challenging tasks: it reaches 42% on Straighten Rope (+7.7 percentage points over Base), and per- fect 100% success on Sweep Dustpan. It also sets new bests on Bottle Fridge (84%), Handover (95%), and Pick Laptop (30%). However, it shows slight re- gressions on symmetric lifting tasks such as Lift Ball (−4.7 vs. base) and Lift Tray (−1.0 vs. base) compared to Best-of-N alone. This pattern suggests that while the rigorous debate process generates valid candidates, the increased com- plexity does not always translate to better discrimination by the validator for simple symmetric motions. Given the substantial computational overhead, the combination is not recommended as a general-purpose default but remains a powerful tool for specific high-difficulty tasks like rope manipulation, where rea- soning and coordination are paramount. Table 9: Combined refinement strategy results. Success rates (%) comparing the base method, individual refinements, and their combination. Bold: best result per task. MethodPush BoxDual ButtonsBottle FridgeHandoverHandover EasyLift BallLift TrayPick LaptopPick PlateStraighten RopeSweep DustpanTray OvenItem DrawerAvg. BiCICLe99 100 80.3 94.3 68 83.7 83 29 65.3 34.3 97.3 36 46.770.5 + Arms’ Debate97 100 83.3 94.3 70.3 80 83 28 65.3 33.396 36 47.370.3 + Best-of-N97.7 100 81.7 94 73.7 85 84.7 29.3 72.7 31.7 98.3 33.7 42.371.1 + Debate & BoN99 100 84 95 69 79 82 30 63 42 100 35 4270.8 E LLM Call Statistics and Inference Latency We measure the LLM call overhead for each agent variant on the Lift Ball task, using it as a representative example, with GPT-5-mini. Statistics are averaged over 100 evaluation episodes per variant. All measurements include network round-trip latency to the OpenAI API. For methods that issue multiple in- dependent non-sequential calls, we implement those calls in parallel: this applies to all dual-agent baseline and to the candidate-generation and validation stages of Best-of-N. Table 10 summarizes the agent call profile. Several observations are notewor- thy. Token efficiency. RoboPrompt-SA is the most token-efficient method at∼7.1k total tokens per episode. Base BiCICLe uses∼21.5k tokens, which is comfortably below both KAT-DA (∼62.2k) and the two refinement-heavy variants. Arms’ Debate requires∼73.8k tokens per episode, exceeding KAT-DA, while Best-of-N reaches ∼180.7k tokens, or about 8.4× the base BiCICLe budget. The growth is driven by both more calls per episode (3.8 → 12.3 → 33.5 for BiCICLe, Arms’ Bimanual Robot Manipulation via Multi-Agent In-Context Learning29 Table 10: LLM call statistics per episode. Calls, token counts, and wall-clock time for each agent variant on the Lift Ball task with GPT-5-mini. Wall-time reports the median with the interquartile range (IQR), the other columns report mean± standard deviation. VariantCalls/epPrompt tok/epCompl. tok/epTotal tok/epMedian wall-time/ep KAT-SA5.0 ± 2.816 141 ± 9 16814 835 ± 8 99630 976 ± 18 000242.0s (IQR 50.3–295.0s) KAT-DA11.7 ± 4.628 474 ± 11 12633 718 ± 13 83862 192 ± 24 795273.1s (IQR 238.1–307.0s) RoboPrompt-SA 1.6 ± 1.83 025 ± 3 4034 056 ± 3 8617 081 ± 7 19441.5s (IQR 30.7–57.0s) RoboPrompt-DA4.8 ± 5.35 045 ± 5 51712 463 ± 12 51917 509 ± 17 88543.3s (IQR 35.2–79.5s) BiCICLe3.8 ± 4.35 908 ± 6 59915 599 ± 17 78221 507 ± 24 334125.3s (IQR 103.5–159.1s) + Arms’ Debate12.3 ± 11.321 829 ± 20 04351 998 ± 48 40173 827 ± 68 256278.2s (IQR 246.8–587.5s) + Best-of-N 33.5 ± 35.962 421 ± 66 629118 236 ± 127 478180 657 ± 193 967149.7s (IQR 130.2–189.1s) Debate, and Best-of-N) and by much larger completion-token counts, showing that the extra cost comes primarily from repeated trajectory generation and scoring rather than from prompt context alone. Wall-clock latency. RoboPrompt-SA is also the fastest method at ∼41.5s per episode, closely followed by RoboPrompt-DA at ∼43.3s. Base BiCICLe requires ∼125.3s, while Arms’ Debate is the slowest variant overall at∼278.2s, matching KAT-DA (∼273.1s). The main latency surprise is Best-of-N: despite being by far the most expensive in calls and tokens, its median wall-time is only ∼149.7s, much closer to base BiCICLe than to Arms’ Debate. This gap is explained by parallelism, whereas Arms’ Debate adds extra serial replanning stages. It also shows a very heavy latency tail, with an upper quartile of ∼587.5s, indicating that sequential multi-call coordination is much more vulnerable to occasional slow API responses. Cost–performance trade-off. On Lift Ball, Best-of-N achieves the best ab- solute performance at 85.0%, followed closely by base BiCICLe at 83.7% and Arms’ Debate at 80.0%. The key trade-off is therefore between the small ac- curacy gain of Best-of-N and its very large compute overhead: relative to base BiCICLe, it improves success by only 1.3 percentage points while increasing the token budget from ∼21.5k to ∼180.7k tokens per episode. Arms’ Debate is not Pareto-efficient on this task, since it is both less accurate than base Bi- CICLe and substantially more expensive in tokens and latency. Relative to the RoboPrompt baselines, base BiCICLe improves over RoboPrompt-SA (78.7%) and RoboPrompt-DA (69.3%), making the basic leader-follower pipeline the strongest efficiency–accuracy operating point, while Best-of-N is better viewed as a compute-heavy refinement for squeezing out the last few points of perfor- mance. A complementary way to reduce inference cost and latency is to use a smaller non-reasoning backbone, such as Qwen 2.5 7B: as shown in Table 2 of the main paper, the same architectural ranking is preserved, and BiCICLe still surpasses the strongest training-free baselines on average. 30Palma et al. F Prompt Templates We report the full prompt templates used by BiCICLe and its extensions. Every agent call follows the standard [system, user] message format. The system message is fixed per agent variant, while the user message is assembled at infer- ence time by concatenating N = 10 ICL demonstrations with the live observation (see format below). Placeholders are typeset in〈angle brackets〉. BiCICLe Step 1: Leader prediction. System prompt (leader arm) You are the〈right|left〉 arm of a bimanual Franka Panda robot with par- allel grippers. We provide you with some demos in the format of observa- tion>[action_1, action_2, . . . ]. Then you will receive a new observation and you need to output a list of actions that matches the trend in the demos. Do not output anything else. User prompt (leader arm) 〈demo 1 observation〉 >〈demo 1 leader actions〉, . . . ,〈demo N observation〉 > 〈demo N leader actions〉,〈live observation〉 > Step 2: Follower prediction. System prompt (follower arm) You are the〈left|right〉 arm of a bimanual Franka Panda robot with par- allel grippers. We provide you with some demos in the format of observa- tion>[action_1, action_2, . . . ]. Then you will receive a new observation and you need to output a list of actions that matches the trend in the demos. Do not output anything else. User prompt (follower arm) 〈demo 1 observation ∪ leader_arm: demo 1 leader actions〉 >〈demo 1 follower actions〉, . . . ,〈live observation ∪ leader_arm: predicted leader actions〉 > Arms’ Debate Arms’ Debate performs two full leader-follower rounds, for a total of four single- arm agent calls per inference step. Steps 1 and 2 are identical to BiCICLe above. The two additional calls use fresh ICL prompts (no conversation history): the Bimanual Robot Manipulation via Multi-Agent In-Context Learning31 other arm’s trajectory is embedded directly into the restructured demonstra- tions, so each call is stateless and compact. Step 3: Leader re-prediction. User prompt (leader re-prediction, Step 3) 〈demo 1 obs ∪ follower_arm: demo 1 follower actions〉 >〈demo 1 leader ac- tions〉, . . . ,〈live obs ∪ follower_arm: Step 2 follower prediction〉 > Step 4: Follower re-prediction. User prompt (follower re-prediction, Step 4) 〈demo 1 obs∪ leader_arm: demo 1 leader actions〉 >〈demo 1 follower actions〉, . . . ,〈live obs ∪ leader_arm: Step 3 refined leader prediction〉 > The final bimanual action is assembled from the Step-3 refined leader pre- diction and the Step-4 refined follower prediction. Best-of-N Best-of-N generates N=5 candidate plans using the BiCICLe pipeline (Steps 1– 2) with independent sampling, then scores each candidate with a validator call. Validator scoring. System prompt (validator) You are a strict judge evaluating bimanual robot action plans. CONTEXT: Two Franka Panda arms (right=indices 0–6, left=indices 7–13) in a 100×100×100 voxel workspace. Each 14-dim action is [right_x, right_y, right_z, right_rot1, right_rot2, right_rot3, right_gripper, left_x, left_y, left_z, left_rot1, left_rot2, left_rot3, left_gripper]. TASK: Score the CANDIDATE plan from 1 to 5. START AT 3 and adjust: CHECK 1 — Arm collision risk (+1 or -1): At each timestep, compute the Euclidean distance between right [x,y,z] and left [x,y,z]. If ANY step has distance < 10 voxels AND both arms are actively mov- ing (not stationary), that is a collision risk: -1. If all steps have safe separation: +1. CHECK 2 — Target + trajectory match vs demos (+1 or -1): Does the candidate approach the SAME objects as in demos (first action within 5 voxels of demo first action)? Does the z-trajectory follow the same shape (e.g. approach high, descend to grasp, lift)? Both must be true for +1. Either failing: -1. CHECK 3 — Gripper logic (0 or -1): For EACH arm: does the gripper open/close at the correct step relative to when 32Palma et al. the arm reaches the object? Closing too early (before reaching), or gripper sequence inverted vs demos: -1. CHECK 4 — Workspace reachability (0 or -1): Right arm should mostly operate in x > 30 (its reachable zone). Left arm should mostly operate in x < 70. If an arm consistently reaches into the opposite side of the workspace (>3 steps): -1. Final score = 3 + check1 + check2 + check3 + check4, clamped to [1, 5]. You MUST show your work for each check, then give the final score. Output ONLY valid JSON: "check1": "+1 or -1: <reason>", "check2": "+1 or -1: <reason>", "check3": "0 or -1: <reason>", "check4": "0 or -1: <reason>", "score": <int 1–5> User prompt (validator) Reference Demos 〈demo 1 observation〉 >〈demo 1 bimanual actions〉, . . . ,〈demo N observation〉 > 〈demo N bimanual actions〉 Candidate Plan 〈live observation〉 >〈candidate bimanual actions〉

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