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Expanding Data-Agnostic Pivotal Instances Selection Models with Proximity Trees and Ensemble Learning
Alessio Cascione, Mattia Setzu, Cristiano Landi, Paolo Maria Mancarella, Riccardo Guidotti
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Summary
The paper introduces PivotTree, an interpretable, data-agnostic case-based machine learning model that selects representative 'pivot' instances to construct hierarchical decision trees. It supports univariate, multivariate (oblique), and proximity-based splits, and can be integrated into ensemble methods like Random Forests to balance interpretability and predictive performance across diverse data modalities.
Entities (10)
Relation Signals (8)
PivotTree → selects → Pivotal Instances
confidence 98% · PivotTree serves as a selection model, capable of extracting a representative subset of training instances, referred to as pivots
PivotTree → isbasedon → Case-Based Reasoning
confidence 95% · we introduce PivotTree, a hierarchical and interpretable case-based model
PivotTree → isinspiredby → Decision Trees
confidence 95% · PivotTree, a hierarchical and interpretable case-based model inspired by decision trees
PivotTree → usessplittype → Univariate Split
confidence 95% · PivotTree implements the selection function... Univariate Split. Is a “traditional” axis-parallel split condition
PivotTree → usessplittype → Multivariate Split
confidence 95% · Multivariate Split. Is an oblique split condition... that allows to leverage multiple pivots
PivotTree → usessplittype → Proximity Split
confidence 95% · Proximity Split. Is a proximity split condition inspired by the Proximity Forest
PivotTree → iscomposedof → Random Forest
confidence 90% · By leveraging Random Forests composed of multiple PivotTree classifiers
Proximity Forest → usessplittype → Proximity Split
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Abstract
Abstract:As decision-making processes grow more complex, machine learning tools have become essential for tackling business and societal challenges. However, many existing methods rely on decision-making procedures that are difficult to interpret. Since humans naturally make decisions by comparing new cases with a few representative examples, we aim to design an approach that selects such pivots to construct an interpretable predictive model. Inspired by decision trees, we propose a hierarchical, interpretable-by-design pivot selection model based on the similarity between pivots and input instances. Our method functions both as a pivot selection technique and a standalone predictive model. Extending beyond single pivots, we incorporate pairs of pivots that are used by proximity and oblique trees, as well as ensembles, which enhance the versatility and effectiveness of our proposal. Additionally, our approach is data modality-agnostic, leveraging pre-trained networks for data transformation. Experiments across diverse datasets, including tabular data, text, images, and time series, demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach, outperforming alternative instance selection strategies and achieving competitive results against state-of-the-art interpretable models while maintaining a minimal number of pivots.
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- Source: https://arxiv.org/abs/2607.27522v1
- Canonical: https://arxiv.org/abs/2607.27522v1
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This manuscript was accepted for publication in Machine Learning on May 2, 2026. Expanding Data-Agnostic Pivotal Instances Selection Models with Proximity Trees and Ensemble Learning Alessio Cascione 1* , Mattia Setzu 1 , Cristiano Landi 1,2 , Paolo Maria Mancarella 1 , Riccardo Guidotti 1,2 1* Department of Computer Science, University of Pisa, Largo B. Pontecorvo, Pisa, 56127, PI, Italy. 2 ISTI-CNR, Via G. Moruzzi, Pisa, 56127, PI, Italy. *Corresponding author(s). E-mail(s): alessio.cascione@phd.unipi.it; Contributing authors: mattia.setzu@unipi.it; cristiano.landi@phd.unipi.it; paolo.mancarella@unipi.it; riccardo.guidotti@unipi.it; Abstract As decision-making processes grow more complex, machine learning tools have become essential for tackling business and societal challenges. However, many existing methods rely on decision-making procedures that are difficult to inter- pret. Since humans naturally make decisions by comparing new cases with a few representative examples, we aim to design an approach that selects such pivots to construct an interpretable predictive model. Inspired by decision trees, we propose a hierarchical, interpretable-by-design pivot selection model based on the simi- larity between pivots and input instances. Our method functions both as a pivot selection technique and a standalone predictive model. Extending beyond single pivots, we incorporate pairs of pivots that are used by proximity and oblique trees, as well as ensembles, which enhance the versatility and effectiveness of our proposal. Additionally, our approach is data modality-agnostic, leveraging pre- trained networks for data transformation. Experiments across diverse datasets, including tabular data, text, images, and time series, demonstrate the effective- ness of our approach, outperforming alternative instance selection strategies and 1 arXiv:2607.27522v1 [cs.LG] 29 Jul 2026 achieving competitive results against state-of-the-art interpretable models while maintaining a minimal number of pivots. Keywords: Interpretable Machine Learning, Explainable AI, Instance-based Approach, Pivotal Instances, Transparent Model, Ensemble Method 1 Introduction Machine Learning (ML) models have become indispensable in aiding human decision- making across diverse domains, including healthcare, online threat detection, and consumer behavior analysis [1–4]. Despite their remarkable performance, these mod- els often rely on complex and opaque architectures, making it challenging for both experts and end-users to interpret their decision-making processes. While ML models can equal or even surpass human performance in specific tasks, their underlying rea- soning mechanisms significantly diverge from human cognitive processes [5]. Given the growing reliance on ML-driven decisions, enhancing model interpretability and demys- tifying the inner workings of these “black-box” systems is essential [6]. This need for transparency is the primary objective of Explainable AI (XAI) [7]. A promising approach to fostering interpretability in ML models is leveraging similarity-based reasoning grounded in discriminative and descriptive elements. We hypothesize that models capable of reasoning through exemplary instances provide a more intuitive and interpretable framework for decision-makers, analysts, and general users [8]. Human cognition naturally employs case-based reasoning [9], wherein past experiences are stored and retrieved to solve new problems. Although the retrieval mechanism itself may not always be explicit, reasoning through analogous cases remains inherently interpretable. This cognitive strategy is deeply ingrained in human perception, enabling even young children to recognize and interact with novel objects based on their resemblance to familiar ones [10]. Furthermore, this reasoning pro- cess spans multiple modalities, including visual recognition of familiar faces, auditory comparison of musical genres, and gustatory identification of culinary styles based on past experiences [11]. At its core, similarity-based reasoning constitutes a universal cognitive framework that extends across diverse data modalities and domains [12]. Case-based reasoning offers substantial advantages in promoting interpretability across various fields, including medical diagnostics [13], financial risk assessment [14], text analysis [15, 16], and time-series and image processing [17]. Recent research [18, 19] highlights the effectiveness of this approach, demonstrating that human users often prefer instance-based reasoning over more abstract feature-based methods. Building on these insights, we underscore the importance of high-quality training data to ensure meaningful similarity between pivots and instances for predictive modeling. Poor data diversity or bias can result in unrepresentative cases, thereby reducing model inter- pretability and reliability. Conversely, feature-based approaches may offer enhanced robustness in such scenarios by emphasizing the role of specific attributes in shaping predictions. 2 (a) Select(b) Predict(c) Explain Fig. 1: PivotTree as (a) selector, (b) interpretable model, (c) decision tree w.r.t. the two pivot 0 and pivot 1 highlighted with larger markers. Therefore, our goal is to develop a suite of interpretable case-based models that identify both descriptive and discriminative cases to support decision-making tasks. To this end, we introduce PivotTree, a hierarchical and interpretable case-based model inspired by decision trees [20]. At its core, PivotTree serves as a selection model, capable of extracting a representative subset of training instances, referred to as pivots. However, beyond its role in instance selection, PivotTree can also function as a predictive model. By employing a similarity-based decision tree structure, it classifies new instances by routing them through its hierarchy, ultimately providing both a prediction and an interpretable explanation. Unlike traditional decision trees, where explanations consist of explicit rule sets, PivotTree provides explanations based on similarities with pivots. This approach aligns with instance-based models, as PivotTree functions as both a selection method and a predictive model, encoding instances within a similarity space to facilitate case-based reasoning. A key challenge of PivotTree lies in the interpretability of the distance metric used to compare instances with pivots, requiring users to understand how the metric influences the model’s decision-making process. To address this and further enhance both interpretability and generalization, we draw inspiration from research on oblique trees [21, 22] and proximity forest methods in time series classification [23–25]. Specifi- cally, we introduce within PivotTree oblique splits and proximity splits, which refine the decision process by comparing a test instance against two pivots and routing predictions based on the closest match. To further improve predictive performance, we integrate PivotTree and its variants into ensemble models. By leveraging Ran- dom Forests [26] composed of multiple PivotTree classifiers, we enhance the model robustness while preserving interpretability. Additionally, to mitigate the complex- ity of ensemble models, we employ the splitting stump forests approach [27], which extracts compact ensembles of weak learners from a Random Forest [26], striking a balance between accuracy and efficiency. Lastly, PivotTree and its variants are inher- ently data-agnostic, making them adaptable across various data modalities, further broadening their applicability in diverse decision-making scenarios. 3 (a) Univariate(b) Multivariate(c) Proximity Fig. 2: PivotTree decision boundaries induced by (a) univariate, (b) multivariate, and (c) proximity splits w.r.t. the same three pivots highlighted with larger markers. Figure 1 provides an example of PivotTree using the well-known iris dataset, where flowers are classified based on their petal characteristics. The process begins with PivotTree selecting a subset of representative instances, referred to as pivots (Figure 1 (a)), which serve as exemplars for classification. These pivots form the foundation of a case-based model, allowing new instances to be represented in terms of their similarity to the selected pivots (Figure 1 (b)). Building on this pivot selection, PivotTree constructs a hierarchical structure that classifies instances based on their proximity to different pivots. This hierarchy takes the form of a decision tree (Figure 1 (c)), where test instances traverse the tree, progressively aligning with the most similar pivots until they reach a classification leaf. For example, given a test instance x: if its similarity to pivot 0 exceeds 0.89 (following the left branch), x is classified as a Versicolor flower. Otherwise (following the right branch), if x’s similarity to pivot 1 is greater than 0.85 (left branch), x is classified as a Virginica. If neither condition is met, x is classified as a Setosa. In contrast, a traditional decision tree would establish decision boundaries using feature-based rules, such as: “If petal length < 2.4, then classify as Setosa; else if petal width < 1.7, then classify as Versicolor ; otherwise, classify as Virginica”. However, this conventional approach has two key limitations: (i) it can only model axis-parallel splits, restricting its flexibility, (i) it is ineffective for data types where features lack clear semantic meaning. PivotTree overcomes these limitations by enabling interpretability in complex domains such as images, text, and time series – areas where conventional interpretable models often struggle both in performance and clarity. Moreover, besides the univariate splitting strategy described above, PivotTree is designed to support alternative splitting approaches. These include a multivariate strategy based on oblique splits [21, 28], and a proximity- based strategy, which refines decision choices by selecting the closest pivot between two candidates [23]. Each strategy provides further expressivity to the model as shown in Figure 2. Univariate strategies are the most stable and provide the fastest induction times. Multivariate strategies are more powerful, and leverage similarity to multiple pivots. Finally, proximity strategies provide comparison-based splits: each node holds 4 a set of pivots, one per class, each associated to a different subtree, and determining the instances’ routing. Furthermore, unlike state-of-the-art distance-based predictive models such as knn [29], our method introduces a hierarchical structure, enhancing the interpretability and efficiency of similarity-based classification. Experiments conducted on 45 datasets spanning diverse modalities, including tab- ular data, time series, images, and text, demonstrate that PivotTree and its variants produce interpretable predictive models that match the effectiveness of state-of-the- art approaches while significantly reducing complexity, as measured by the number of pivots and decision stumps. A qualitative analysis and a real case study on oral lesion diagnosis highlight the model’s strong performance across different data types. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we illustrate the related works Section 3 illustrates our proposals, and Section 4 reports the experimental results. Finally, Section 5 summarizes our contributions, details its limitations and discusses future research directions. 2 Related Work We can categorize case-based methods in two main families: selection methods, aiming to, given a fixed data representation, learn the proper pivots through similarity on said representation; and representation methods, which instead fix a similarity function, and aim to learn a proper instance representation. Such representations in turn are used to select the pivots. We underline that in this section we adopt the term pivot to refer to the instances selected by different proposals in the state-of-the-art which do not necessarily adopt this term. Selection. Underlying selection methods is the assumption of a fixed data rep- resentation. Among them, we can distinguish three subclasses of methods: covering, clustering, and partitioning methods. Covering methods aim to group records around pivots. ε-ball [30] jointly learns a set of distance-based neighboring coverages cen- tered on a set of pivots. Pivots are optimized to be as few as possible, while coverages to be as class-pure as possible. The resulting pivots are thus laid on a “flat” structure where no structure defines the relationship among pivots. Rather than selected, piv- ots may also be learned: M-Peer [31] learns a set of synthetic pivots by evolutionary optimization, searching for pivots with high coverage and purity. Clustering algorithms can provide more nuanced pivot-to-pivot relationships. The MiniMax algorithm [32] builds on agglomerative clustering by identifying cluster representatives and aggregating them hierarchically, resulting in a hierarchy of pro- totypes. PivotTree improves on MiniMax by greatly improving on its complexity, and by leveraging pivots to perform prediction. Partitioning algorithms segment the feature space, assigning a pivot to each segment. ProximityForest [23] induces a forest of similarity-based decision trees routing instances according to two pivot simi- larities. Notably, pivots are selected randomly, and so is the similarity function, thus yielding highly randomized trees. Its extension, ProximityForest 2.0 [33] enriches the approach by considering a large set of similarities. Similarity scores may be adap- tive [34], or comparative [35, 36]. In the latter case, each node is assigned two pivots, 5 and higher similarity to either of them routes instances in either subtree. This fam- ily of approaches has found large success on time series data, where shapelets [37] or other transformations, e.g., frequency transformations, are often first applied. With respect to covering algorithms, PivotTree constructs hierarchies of pivots, thus improving model interpretability. Following partitioning algorithms, PivotTree partitions the feature space, but unlike ProximityForest, it adopts a pivot selection strategy and a fixed similarity function, greatly improving the robustness and variance of its results. Moreover, pivots are carefully chosen, rather than randomly selected. Representation. Unlike selection methods, representation methods fix a similar- ity function and rely on learning a proper representation of the data to find pivots. Unsurprisingly, these models are often neural, hence lacking interpretability. Still, they often retain some interpretable components. Among the first proposals, [38] and [39] leverage decision tree-like structures, and introduce soft decision trees, wherein nodes hold pivots, and instances are routed probabilistically towards multiple paths in the tree, thus creating fuzzy chains of pivots. A similar approach is implemented in CNN- Trees [40], where the hierarchy of learned pivots also holds specificity properties, each layer of the tree identifying pivots more specific than the previous. Moreover, each pivot also provides a score indicating its contribution to the final prediction. Notably, unlike soft trees, routing paths are crisp, thus significantly improving the interpretabil- ity of the model inference. In tree-based representation models, interpretability is provided by both the pivots themselves and their hierarchical structure. Integrating linear models instead, ProtoPNet [41] lays pivots on a flat structure. Here, interpretability lies in similarity scores assigned to each pivot, but no intra-pivot structure is considered. A neural model first embeds pivots and instances, then com- putes similarity between them on a penultimate layer, yielding similarity scores that are fed to a linear scoring model. The same approach is also leveraged to induce trees of pivots [42], which also integrates a novel class detection mechanism: whenever an instance is sufficiently different from all pivots, or is similar to many different piv- ots, then the prediction is rejected. Initially developed for computer vision data, this approach has since been applied to text [15, 43], sequential data [44], and audio [45]. The interpretability of prototype-based networks has also been evaluated through adversarial analyses, highlighting the need for more robust architectures [46]. Fur- ther improving the expressivity of scoring linear models, Generalized Additive Models (GAMs) [47] have also seen application in pivot-based prediction. ProtoNAM [48] introduces a neural model wherein representations for instances and pivots are learned jointly, and then provided to a downstream linear model for prediction. The represen- tations are learned on a feature-basis, thus, unlike other models [41], the instance-pivot relationship is learned at an extremely fine-grained level. Yet, the model introduces a set of non-neural components that negatively impact interpretability. Overall, Pivot- Tree shares the tree structure with some models, but improves on them by providing either proper pivot selection, or fast induction. 6 3 Methodology In this section, we present PivotTree (pt), an interpretable case-based hierarchical pivot selection model inspired by decision trees [20], its variants considering multiple pivots for each split, and different ensembles of PivotTrees. First, we formalize the problem setting of solving a classification task through case-based reasoning. Then, we present different strategies for selecting pivots and performing node splitting during the tree-growing process. Finally, we discuss the integration of such methods into ensemble approaches inspired by Random Forest classifiers [26]. 3.1 Problem Setting Given a set of instances represented as real-valued m-dimensional feature vectors 1 in R m , and given a set of class labels C = 1,...,c, we assume the existence of an unknown ground-truth function g :R m → C mapping each vector inR m to one of the c classes in C. The objective of case-based reasoning is to learn a function f :R m → C approximating g, with f being defined as a function of k exemplary cases named pivots. As explained in Section 2, similarity-based case-based models define f on a similarity space S, often inversely denoted as “distance space”, induced by a similarity function s :R m ×R m →R quantifying the similarity of instances [49]. Given a training set ⟨X,Y⟩, with a set X = x 1 ,...,x n of n instances, and Y = y 1 ,...,y n associated class labels, a similarity function s, our objective is to learn a function π :R n×m →R k×m that takes as input X and returns a set P ⊆ X, i.e., π s (X) = P , of k pivots such that the performance of f are maximized. In practical terms, given a training set ⟨X,Y⟩ and a similarity function s, the selection method π selects k pivots P from X. Through the similarity function s and the pivots P , the dataset X ∈R m is mapped into the similarity space S w.r.t. the selected pivots, and thus encoded into a representation Z ∈R n×k where Z i,j is the similarity between the i-th instance in X and the j-th pivot in P . Hence, the predictive model f is trained on ⟨Z,Y⟩. Then, given a test instance x ∈R m , x is first mapped to a similarity vector z =⟨s(x,p 1 ),...,s(x,p k )⟩ yielding its similarity to the set P of pivots. Then, z is provided to f , which performs the prediction. 3.2 Usage of PivotTree Aiming for transparency of the case-based predictive model f , our objective is to use as an interpretable model f , i.e., a decision tree [20] or k-Nearest Neighbors (kNN) [50]. When f is implemented as a decision tree (dt), we explore three forms of splits: • Univariate Split. Is a “traditional” axis-parallel split condition of the form s(x,p i )≥ β, i.e., “if the similarity between instance x and pivot p i is greater or equal than β, then ...”, that allows to easily understand the logic adopted by inspecting x and p i for every condition of the rule. • Multivariate Split. Is an oblique split condition [21, 22] of the form ω i s(x,p i ) + ω j s(x,p j )≥ β, i.e., “if the weighted sum of the similarities between instance x and 1 We consistently treat data instances as real-valued vectors. Data transformation employed in the experimental section to maintain coherence with this assumption will be specified when needed. 7 pivots p i and p j , with weights ω i and ω j , is greater or equal then β, then ...”, that allows to easily understand the logic adopted by inspecting x and p i against x and p j for every condition of the rule. A multivariate split allows to leverage multiple pivots (limited to two to grant interpretability), thus increasing the expressivity of the model. Moreover, similarity to each pivot is weighted by a learnable weight ω. • Proximity Split. Is a proximity split condition inspired by the Proximity Forest developed for Time Series Classification [23–25] of the form s(x,p i ) > s(x,p j ), i.e. “if instance x is closer to pivot p i than to pivot p j , then ...” that allows to understand in a much easier way the logic adopted by comparing x against p i and p j for every condition of the rule. Also, this type of split allows to reason in terms of relative, rather than absolute similarity, providing an additional and different layer of interpretability for the user. On the other hand, when f is implemented as a knn, every decision is based on the similarity with a few neighbors, typically between one and five, in the similarity space S obtained by computing the similarity between each instance with respect to the selected pivots. As an alternative, we consider a variant where knn uses only the set of selected pivots as a training set, performing the prediction w.r.t. the original feature space. A human user just needs to inspect x and the similarities with the pivots P and the instances in the neighborhood. When the number of pivots is kept small, the interpretability of both methods increases, limiting the expressiveness. Vice versa, using a selection model π that returns a large number k of pivots can increase the performance at the cost of interpretability. Our proposal aims to balance these two aspects by allowing the selection of a small number of pivots that still guarantee comparable performance to interpretable predictive models. 3.3 Pivot Tree Algorithm We present here PivotTree implementing the selection function π. Much like decision tree induction algorithms [20], PivotTree greedily learns a hierarchy of nodes, each node splitting instances towards one of its two children, ultimately reaching terminal leaf nodes, which are associated with a classification label. The splitting is based on discriminative pivots and descriptive pivots. Let X t be the instances constrained by the decision path at iteration t in the tree construction, and Y t the associated class labels. We call discriminative pivots the instances of class c, i.e., p − ∈ X (c) t = x i |x i ∈ X t ∧y i = c that maximize the impurity gain when partitioning X t w.r.t. the similarity to such instances. We discuss details of the different approaches for selecting such instances in the next section. Furthermore, besides discriminative pivots, for each iteration v, PivotTree also identifies descriptive pivots. A descriptive pivot is an instance of class c, i.e., p + ∈x i |x i ∈ X t ∧ y i = c that maximizes the similarity with all the other instances described by the same node and belonging to the same class, i.e., p + = arg max p ′ ∈X (c) t P x i ̸=p ′ ∈X (c) t s(x i ,p ′ ). In Algorithm 1, we illustrate the pseudo-code for training a PivotTree. Given the dataset and labels ⟨X,Y⟩, the similarity function s, the maximum tree depth maxdepth, PivotTree returns the set P of selected pivots, and the trained decision tree T (line 4). After initializing the tree and pivots (line 1), PivotTree calculates 8 Algorithm 1 PivotTree(X,Y ) Input: ⟨X,Y⟩ data and labels, s similarity function, maxdepth maximum tree depth Output: P set of pivots, T learned tree 1: T ←∅; P ←∅;▷ Variables initialization 2: S ←⟨s(x i ,x j )⟩∀x i ,x j ∈ X × X▷ Calculate similarity matrix 3: P,T ← ptr(X,Y,T,P,S);▷ Start of recursive procedure 4: return P,T 5: function ptr(X,Y,T,P,S) 6:if depth(T )≤ maxdepth then 7:for c∈ C do 8:P − ← GetDisc(X,Y,S);▷ Get discriminative pivots 9:P + ←arg max x∈X P x̸=x ′ ∈X (l) s(x,x ′ ); ▷ Get descriptive pivot 10:P ← P ∪ P − ∪ P + ;▷ Add pivots to result set 11:X l ,X r ,Y l ,Y r ← SplitData(X,Y,P );▷ Split data w.r.t.P 12:P l ,T l ← ptr(X l ,Y l ,T,P,S)▷ Recourse on left child 13:P r ,T r ← ptr(X r ,Y r ,T,P,S)▷ Recourse on right child 14:T ← addSplitToTree(T,T l ,T r );▷ Add split to tree 15:return P,T ;▷ Return current pivots and tree 16:else 17:P + ←arg max x∈X P x̸=x ′ ∈X (l) s(x,x ′ );▷ Get descriptive pivot 18:P ← P ∪ P + ;▷ Add pivots to result set 19:return P, makeLeaf(T );▷ Return current pivots and leaf a similarity matrix S between all pairs of instances in X (line 2). Then, the recursive procedure ptr is started (line 3). The ptr procedure is illustrated in lines 5–19 in Algorithm 1. If the current depth of the tree depth(T ) is lower than the maximum tree depth maxdepth (line 6), then for each class, the most discriminative and most descriptive pivots are selected and added to the result set P (lines 7–10) 2 . We notice that, since the similarity matrix S is calculated at the beginning, the pairwise simi- larities to select the most discriminative and descriptive pivots are available without performing any calculus. The set P of discriminative and descriptive pivots is then used to select the best split to partition the data with the SplitData function, again maximizing the Information Gain w.r.t. the similarities w.r.t. the pivots in P (line 11). After that, PivotTree recourses on the left and right subsets X l ,Y l and X r ,Y r and composes the tree returned (lines 12–14). On the other hand, if the maximum depth (line 16) or other stopping conditions are met, then the current pivots, augmented with the descriptive pivots of the records in the leaf, and a leaf itself (lines 17–19), are returned. Thus, the complexity of the PivotTree is theoretically bounded by the calculus of the similarity matrix S. Besides being used as a pivot selector method (π), we underline that PivotTree can be employed as a standalone predictive model by combining the encoding in 2 To ease the computational burden, and similarly to other implementations, e.g., scikit-learn, only a subset of candidate splits is tested. 9 the similarity space and the tree induction f . In this case, we do not need to train additional interpretable models, as both pivot selection and case-based prediction are already integrated into the model. The variability in how a PivotTree can be learned lies in the different ways the GetDisc and SplitData functions can be implemented. We discuss proposed strategies for implementing both functions in the next section. 3.4 Pivot Tree Variants We present here PivotTree variants according to the different strategies adopted. Univariate Pivot Tree (pt). The “standard” implementation of both GetDisc and SplitData employs univariate decision splitting function. Let X t be the instances constrained by the decision path at iteration t, and Y t the associated class labels. For each c occurring in Y t , we consider the similarity of each instance x ∈ X t w.r.t. each one of the c class instances in X t , collecting similarity values for each instance in a real- valued vector. This is a way to represent the instances of X t in a feature space where each dimension stands for the similarity an instance has to another c-class instance. On such data representation, a univariate linear splitting function f i can be learned not differently from how it is learned in the original feature space. Since each feature in this space corresponds to a c-class instance, finding the optimal feature-threshold pair to partition the data for impurity gain in this context corresponds to identifying the c-class instance that best separates X t based on similarity. This is the discriminative c- class pivot of X t . Therefore, GetDisc is implemented by performing a univariate split on the newly defined similarity feature-space, utilizing standard approaches such as CART, ID3, or C4.5 [51]. After finding the optimal split condition, the corresponding discriminative pivot p − is extracted as the pivot whose similarity feature was chosen to define the optimal split. This process is repeated for each class c ∈ Y t , thereby extracting a distinct discriminative pivot p − for every class. We further specify that the set of discriminative pivots P − is collected along with the set of descriptive pivots P + . This combined set, P = P − ∪ P + , constitutes the pivot collection for the node, which is accumulated during the tree growing process. The final collection of candidate pivots extracted from each internal node after the training process can be used at the end to define the k exemplar instances to be utilized by an external case-based classifier. To finally complete the splitting procedure in this standard context, the Split- Data function is also implemented as a univariate split. More specifically, it identifies the unique best univariate split obtained by considering the similarity feature-space defined for each x∈ X t with respect to the whole set of candidate pivots P previously extracted. The split is ultimately chosen as the best univariate split in terms of impu- rity gain within this similarity feature-space. A single pivot p is then selected from the candidate set P to separate X t , providing the univariate split condition used by the PivotTree model when trained as a standalone classifier. This enables the training process to continue by routing the instances in X t to the corresponding child nodes accordingly. The described training process, characterized by first extracting candidate pivots to be collected and potentially used for external classifiers, and at the same time 10 learning a standalone case-based classification model, can be naturally extended to support a variety of different splits, as we describe in the following. Oblique Pivot Tree (opt). We introduce multivariate splits, often referred to as oblique splits, for learning PivotTrees. Indeed, instead of selecting a single feature- threshold pair in the similarity feature space, we can employ a linear combination of two feature values with non-zero coefficients to determine the splits. The same splitting strategies used to define multivariate splits for feature-based trees, such as HHCART or bivariate CART [21, 28], can be applied in this context. For the GetDisc procedure, rather than selecting a single discriminative pivot for each class, two discriminative pivots of different classes are chosen, finding the linear combination of their similarity values which better partitions the data in terms of impurity gain. Similarly, for the SplitData procedure, two pivots are selected from the candidate pool to perform the split, with each pivot contributing according to its assigned weight in the combination, choosing the best multivariate split in terms of impurity gain. Proximity Pivot Tree (ppt). To implement the proximity variant, we adopt the same strategy used by the univariate pt to select the discriminative pivots, but then we apply a different strategy to implement the SplitData procedure. Inspired by Proximity Forests [23], we implement SplitData as follows. From the set of candidate pivots P we select a pair of pivots p i ,p j with different class labels, and we partition X t in X t,l = x h ∈ X t |s(x h ,p i ) > s(x h ,p j ) and X t,r = x h ∈ X t |s(x h ,p i ) > s(x h ,p j ), such that it does not exist another pair ˆp i , ˆp j leading to a better partitioning in terms of impurity gain. Intuitively, each branch (left or right) is associated with a pivot selected from the candidate pool. Instances in X t are then routed based on their relative similarity to the pivots of the left and right branches. This approach compares the similarity of an instance to the respective pivots, rather than splitting based on a single similarity value or a linear combination of similarity values. Differently from the standard Proximity Tree [23], we do not randomly sample candidates or proximity measure, but we use pt criterion to identify the best instances instead. Oblique Proximity Pivot Tree (oppt). This approach combines the GetDisc strategy implemented in opt with the SplitData strategy of ppt. Specifically, a multivariate splitting approach is applied w.r.t. each class to identify multiple dis- criminative pivots per class. The choice of descriptive pivots remains the same as the approaches above. Then, for each possible pair of candidate pivots p i ,p j , the infor- mation gain of partitioning the instances routed at that node based on similarity to these pivots is evaluated. The pair that maximizes the information gain is selected as the optimal split condition. To enhance the interpretability of the resulting tree structures, we restrict our search to pairs of pivots belonging to different classes. 3.5 Random Pivot Forest Similarly to traditional decision trees, PivotTree directly used as classifier, can be integrated into an ensemble model such as Random Forest [26]. An ensemble of PivotTrees, which we name RandomPivotForest, can be constructed by instan- tiating multiple PivotTree estimators, each trained on a randomly selected subset of features and/or samples, and performing predictions through majority voting, aggre- gating the prediction of each base tree. We underline that this approach can be applied 11 to any of the previously introduced PivotTree variants 3 . Furthermore, the ensem- ble approach can be extended by using a splitting stump forest compression strategy presented in [27]. Following their method description, given a trained forest Φ, the splitting stump forest approach extracts a compact set of simple trees named, splitting stumps whose split conditions are well balanced according to a balance score. Let us consider a non- terminal node of one of the trees comprising Φ, and let X be the set of training samples reaching that node. In [27], the authors define the balance score of the split associ- ated with that node as min(|X ⊤ |,|X ⊥ |) |X ⊤ |+|X ⊥ | , where X ⊤ denotes the set of training instances reaching that node that evaluate to true with respect to the split condition, and X ⊥ the training instances reaching that node that evaluate to false. For example, if a split sends 6 samples to the true child and 9 samples to the false child (i.e., 6 out of 15 evaluate to True), then the balance score of that split is 0.4. A split is considered bal- anced according to [27] if its balance score meets or exceeds a predetermined threshold ρ, which determines how tolerant we are w.r.t. the presence of imbalance in the split. If the split associated with a node is balanced, then a splitting stump is created by treating that split as a standalone decision-tree classifier performing a single split. The stump is added to a set data structure to avoid duplicate entries. This evaluation is performed for all nodes across all trees in the forest. At the end of this process, collecting all obtained stumps yields a new ensemble model Φ ′ , which can be directly used for prediction or, as suggested in [27], leveraged to learn a new data representation that maps each data point to a set of leaves. More specifically, for each obtained splitting stump φ ∈ Φ ′ , a function b φ :R m → 0, 1 can be defined where b φ (x) = 1 if and only if the split condition associated to φ evaluates to true on x. We can then define a new representation of the feature vector x as the concatenation of the output b φ (x) for all φ ∈ Φ ′ . A new function f can be learned w.r.t. this new binary vector representation of the instances. As suggested in [27], a logistic regression model can be employed due to its resource efficiency and interpretability, learning to predict the target variable based on the assignment of leaves in the stumps. In our analysis, we experiment with the use of RandomPivotForest combined with the splitting stump strategy using a logistic regression classifier at the end. Furthermore, we also build upon the analysis conducted in [27] by additionally exploring an approach that, to foster interpretability, stops at the stump selection step, and treats the resulting stump forest as an ensemble of estimators which are then used directly for prediction through majority voting, without any further data transformation. 3.6 Data Agnosticism By design, PivotTree with the different types of splits and with the ensemble is a data-agnostic model that leverages the concept of similarity to conduct both selection and prediction tasks simultaneously. While some data types, e.g., relational data, are more amenable than others, e.g., images or text, to similarity computation, with 3 Although using ensemble approaches with PivotTree as weak estimators may hinder transparency, interpretability can still be recovered by examining feature importances or by adapting methods that extract standalone interpretations from forests [52, 53]. We leave this investigation to future work, focusing on a straight comparison between standard tree ensembles and RandomPivotForests. 12 our contribution, we aim to address all data types as one. By decoupling similarity computation and object representation, PivotTree can be applied to any data type supporting a mapping toR m , i.e., text through language models, images through vision models, graphs through graph models, etc. In our experimentation, besides tabular data, we focus on time series, images, and text. 4 Experiments We evaluate here the performance of PivotTree in its variants on different datasets of different types 4 . We aim to demonstrate that PivotTree is competitive w.r.t. standard classifiers while at the same time being a simple, interpretable, and effective prototype selection method. We adopt the nomenclature introduced in Section 3 to describe the splitting strategies utilized. Specifically, we use pt and opt to denote the univariate and oblique variants, respectively. Additionally, we refer to the proximity- based strategy as ppt and its oblique variant as oppt. When PivotTree models are employed as standalone classification models, we denote them as ptc, pptc, and so on. Conversely, when they are used solely as pivot selectors for a different classifier, we refer to them as pts, ppts, and so forth. When we refer to the ensemble Random- PivotForest variants of such methods, we use rpt for the univariate case, rppt for the proximity-based split case, and ropt and roppt for their oblique counterparts. 4.1 Experimental Setting In this section, we illustrate the datasets adopted, PivotTree setting and hyperpa- rameters, competitors and baselines, and evaluation measures. Datasets. In order to show the effectiveness of our proposal for different data types, we experimented with 20 tabular datasets, 10 time series datasets, 9 image datasets, and 6 text datasets, for a total of 45 different datasets. Table 1 reports dataset details 5 . The tabular datasets are split into 70% training and 30% testing, along with the oral and pol datasets. The remaining datasets come with predefined training and test splits. For the image datasets, we adhere to the splits defined in [54], using their calibration set as our training set and adopting their test set as ours. This approach prevents the risk of data leakage, as we utilize their pre-trained models to extract latent image representations 6 . For tabular datasets, in order to perform a direct dis- tance comparison between instances, we leave unvaried numeric and ordinal features, while we one-hot encode categorical ones. For image datasets, we extract latent feature representations using as trained models either a standard ResNet or VGG archi- tecture, as employed for each distinct dataset in [54]. These models are trained with standard Cross Entropy Loss, and we consider the representations obtained from both architectures as latent embeddings before passing the transformed input into the final classification layer. More details on the extraction process are available in our paper repository. For textual datasets, we embed the input text with the all-mpnet-base-v2 4 We employ a Python implementation of PivotTree as part of the RuleTree framework available at https: //github.com/fismimosa/PivotTree 5 Detailed preprocessing steps for the different datasets are available on the project repository. 6 https://github.com/andrepugni/ESC. 13 sentence transformer model 7 , which yields L2-normalized 768-dimensional dense vec- tor with magnitude 1. On the basis of these encodings, the similarity s is based on the Euclidean distance for each data type. While text embeddings usually rely on cosine similarity, in [55], it is shown that under unit normalization, the two are directly proportional and thus order-preserving, justifying our uniform usage of Euclidean dis- tance. The datasets are normalized using z-score normalization, where the mean is subtracted, and the values are scaled to unit variance. Specifically, each train-test set within every fold is independently normalized to ensure consistency during cross- validation. For model assessment, the train and test sets are normalized jointly, using the statistical properties calculated from the training data. Pivot Tree Settings. We evaluate PivotTree both as a pivot selection function (π) and as a standalone interpretable classifier (f ), considering all variants introduced in Section 3.4. For all variants, whether used as a selector or classifier, the opti- mal maxdepth is searched in 2, 3, 4. Furthermore, whenever a multivariate split is employed, we use the HHCART strategy with 2 components [21]. When employing PivotTree as a selector, model selection also involves optimizing the type of pivots extracted and used for the task. Specifically, we evaluate four con- figurations to choose the final pivot set: (i) using only discriminative pivots identified during training, (i) using only descriptive pivots, (i) employing both discriminative and descriptive pivots, (iv) or selecting pivots exclusively from those chosen as split conditions for each internal node. In our results, we report only the best performance achieved among these configurations for each of the four PivotTree variants. When PivotTree is used as selector π, we evaluate as interpretable predictive models f both univariate decision trees (dt) and k-Nearest Neighbor (knn) classi- fiers. The knn implementation is sourced from the scikit-learn library, while dt is implemented using the RuleTree Python library. For dt, we test w.r.t a maxdepth interval of 2, 3, 4. For knn, we determine the optimal configuration by searching for κ in 1, 3, 5, where κ represents the number of nearest neighbors considered during classification. We explore two distinct training strategies for knn when combined with PivotTree selector. In the first approach, knn is trained in the similarity feature space Z, where each instance is represented by its similarity to the extracted pivots. In this case, the entire original training set is retained as a reference but represented in the similarity space. Instead, in the second approach, knn is trained in the origi- nal feature space X, using as its reference set the k pivots P selected, where k ≤|X|. We further include, as additional baselines, two rule-set models, namely ripper [56] and irep [57], as well as a model that uses CART to fit a list of univariate deci- sion rules rather than a full tree (grule) 8 . All these further rule-based approaches are trained on the original feature space, exploring a maximum number of rules in 4, 8, 16, 32. To distinguish between all these strategies, we denote methods trained in the similarity space with the subscript Z, while those trained in the original feature space considering only the pivots with the subscript P , e.g., pts Z -knn and pts P -knn. Finally, we underline that for both PivotTree classifier and PivotTree selector 7 https://huggingface.co/sentence-transformers/all-mpnet-base-v2 8 Implementations are available at https://github.com/imoscovitz/wittgenstein and https://github.com/ csinva/imodels. For both irep and ripper, we use the default discretization method provided by the respective implementations, which applies binning into 10 intervals. 14 Table 1: Datasets used for model selection and assessment. dataset details datasettraining sizetest sizefeatureslabels tabular ion245105352 fire17073132 yeast1038446810 magic133145706102 sonar14563602 compas 50492165173 house159486836162 german700300612 spamb32201381572 norm51802220202 lrs 3711601009 vert2179362 iris1054543 wine45471950122 diva 856136693302 breast398171302 steel1358583277 ecoli23510178 heloc73213138232 page 3831164292 images oral454892563 mnist 70001400051210 cifar1060001200051210 catsdogs250050005122 birds117923585122 pets 73514705122 organa 58831176651211 blood 171034195128 svhn99291985851210 time-series yoga30030004262 star1000823610243 chlorine 46738401663 kitchen3753757203 share 965966602 devices87997494967 gun501501502 worms 158779002 ecg50045001405 wafer 100061641522 text medabs1155028887685 vicuna598415117682 pted 502712577682 tgpt35488887682 pol14006007682 liar 1150812677686 the interpretable predictive models f is implemented through a dt and therefore the domain used is always the similarity space indicated with subscript Z, e.g., ptc Z -dt and pts Z -dt. Regarding model selection, we performed stratified 5-fold cross validation on the training set to select the best hyperparameter configuration through grid searches over the hyperparameter space, selecting the best-performing model. For each best identi- fied configuration, we performed model assessment on the test set. For a sensitivity analysis of the proposed methods, examining how performance varies with different 15 maximum numbers of pivots k, we refer the reader to [58]. Indeed, the results obtained for the various introduced variants are consistent with those already observed in [58]. Random Pivot Forest Settings. To evaluate the performance of PivotTree when integrated into an ensemble learning strategy, we follow the same model selection and evaluation strategy as described for the single estimator case, testing ensemble with each PivotTree variant. We name our ensemble RandomPivotForest (rpt). Such name is adapted according to the variant of PivotTree used in the ensemble, e.g., rppt if a proximity split is used, ropt if an oblique split is used, etc. Further- more, when experimenting with the balanced variants of RandomPivotForest, we consider two strategies 9 : (i) using the stumps directly as base estimators, which we denote with the subscript b, e.g., rpt b for prediction; (i) combining the stumps with logistic regression, following the original splitting stump forest as described in [27]. In this case, we indicate this variant with the subscript s. For model selection, we explore different threshold values of ρ, selecting from the range 0.1, 0.15..., 0.45 in increments of 0.05. In our experiments, each RandomPivotForest comprises 100 estimators, and the optimal maxdepth for the base estimators is selected from2, 3, 4. During training, each estimator samples ⌊ √ m⌋ features, where m represents the total number of features in the original feature space. Additionally, in order to speed-up the training of the ensemble, we investigate a sampling strategy in which only 10% of the training set is selected without replacement for each base estimator, and we compare its impact on performance against using the entire training set for each estimator. Competitors and Baselines. We compare PivotTree with the following baselines and state-of-the-art similarity-based approaches for pivot selection (π): • kms: runs kMeans [59] and adopts the centroids as pivots; • kmd: runs kMedoids [59] and adopts the medoids as pivots; • ebl: selects pivots according to the ε-ball algorithm 10 [30]. For kms and kmd, the number of pivots k is selected within a grid on k ∈ [2, 50], while for ebl, the grid search for ε is performed on an interval between the 2 nd and the 52 th quantile of the empirical similarity distribution of the training set, as suggested in [30]. Regarding the interpretable predictive models f , we use knn and dt, maintaining the same hyperparameter space Z as in for PivotTree selectors. As additional baselines that do not use pivots, we compare PivotTree against standard k-Nearest Neighbor (knn), decision trees (dt), and oblique decision trees (odt), all trained directly on the original feature space X. To distinguish these meth- ods from our pivot-based approaches and other competitors using pivots, we denote them as knn X , dt X , and odt X . For all models, we apply the same hyperparam- eter settings and model selection strategy as described for pivot-based approaches. Notably, for datasets consisting of images and text, dt X and odt X do not offer inter- pretability, as they rely on feature-based splits within an opaque latent embedding space. In contrast, knn, other competitors, and our approaches operate on individual cases, allowing end users to compare examples directly when making a final decision. 9 In RandomPivotForest, as we exclusively use PivotTrees as standalone classifiers as base estimators, we omit the subscript Z for simplicity. 10 https://docs.seldon.io/projects/alibi/en/latest/methods/ProtoSelect.html. 16 Similarly, as competing ensemble methods, we compare RandomPivotForest with traditional Random Forests trained on the original feature space, employing either univariate splits (rdt) or oblique splits (rodt). For the sake of completeness, we also include in our experimental evaluation Categorical Boosting (catb) [60], Extreme Gradient Boosting (xgb) [61], and Light Gradient Boosting Machine (lgbm) [62]. 11 All boosting models use univariate decision trees as weak learners and adopt the same values of maxdepth and number of estimators explored for RandomPivotForest. For each method, we test learning rates of 0.01, 0.1, and 0.3, and evaluate both full- sampling and 10% subsampling strategies. In all cases, the comparison follows the same model-selection procedure and relies on identical hyperparameter configurations. Evaluation Measures. We evaluate the effectiveness of the selected pivots by measuring the weighted F1-score of the predictive models relying on the different sets of pivots 12 . In line with the literature [7], we adopt model complexity, measured in terms of k, the number of selected pivots, as a proxy for interpretability. The underlying ratio- nale is that a smaller number of representative instances leads to a more concise and cognitively manageable explanation of the model’s decision process [63]. This choice is consistent with prior work in exemplar and instance-selection approaches, where classifier or regressor performance is evaluated w.r.t. respect to subsets of selected instances, analyzing the trade-off between predictive performance and the number of selected examples [30, 31, 64]. Note that k can either be user-given, or optimized w.r.t. a given validation set. We experiment in both settings. As a further specifica- tion, although we cannot theoretically guarantee that the selected pivots will cover all classes, the greedy construction of the tree naturally promotes diversity, as exemplified in the qualitative examples discussed in Section 4.3. Instances that are discriminative at higher levels are unlikely to be selected again for subsequent splits, as the earlier splits have already partitioned those instances. This mechanism inherently encourages the tree to capture a wide variety of class-representative instances and justify the fact that we focus on the number of pivots extracted to estimate interpretability. 4.2 Quantitative Results In this section, we present a quantitative analysis of the results obtained from our experiments. Pivot Tree Classifier and Selector Evaluation. In Tables 2 and 3, we report the overall performance of each model across all datasets, measured in terms of aver- age weighted F1-score 13 . We also assess model complexity, expressed as the average number of pivots ± standard deviation. To provide a more detailed analysis, we first examine performance separately for each data type, followed by an evaluation of over- all average performance. In both cases, models are assessed in a constrained setting, where the number of pivots used for classification is limited to a maximum of 20 11 Implementations are available at: https://catboost.ai/docs/en/, https://xgboost.readthedocs.io/en/ stable/, and https://lightgbm.readthedocs.io/en/stable/. For further implementation details, we refer the reader to the repository of this paper. 12 For all reported tables, we also provide results in terms of Balanced Accuracy in Appendix A, which are consistent with those reported in terms of weighted F1-score. 13 For the sake of clarity, we do not include the standard deviation of the weighted F1-score, as it remains relatively stable across different models for each data type, typically ranging between 0.2 and 0.3. 17 Table 2: Average weighted F1-score ± std. dev. for PivotTree classifiers and selectors combined with dt (limited to at most 20 pivots), baselines, and competi- tors. Subscripts indicate the average number of pivots ± std. dev. Best results in bold, second best in italics. model tabular images time-series text all grule X .65±.29.38±.42.40±.32.45±.32.51±.34 irep X .76±.14.90±.09.55±.27.52±.25.71±.23 ripper X .76±.15.91±.08.61±.25.52±.25.72±.22 dt X .81±.14.70±.19.64±.26.58±.22.72±.21 odt X .81±.13.70±.19.64±.27.58±.22.72±.21 kms Z .74 14 ±.16 6 .70 12 ±.20 6 .61 12 ±.26 6 .54 15 ±.20 4 .68 13 ±.21 6 kmd Z .76 15 ±.15 5 .69 12 ±.19 6 .64 14 ±.26 6 .56 17 ±.20 4 .69 14 ±.20 6 ebl Z .79 18 ±.15 5 .70 16 ±.21 6 .62 16 ±.27 7 .59 20 ±.22 2 .71 18 ±.21 6 ptc Z .79 10 ±.14 4 .69 7 ±.20 4 .63 9 ±.27 4 .60 10 ±.21 4 .71 9 ±.21 4 pptc Z .80 13 ±.14 6 .73 10 ±.17 6 .62 12 ±.25 6 .58 11 ±.21 4 .71 12 ±.20 6 optc Z .76 15 ±.15 7 .67 9 ±.20 7 .62 11 ±.27 5 .53 14 ±.19 5 .68 13 ±.20 7 opptc Z .80 12 ±.13 5 .73 11 ±.21 6 .58 10 ±.28 6 .55 13 ±.20 6 .70 11 ±.22 6 pts Z .80 11 ±.14 5 .69 9 ±.21 5 .62 11 ±.28 5 .60 12 ±.22 5 .71 11 ±.21 5 ppts Z .78 15 ±.15 6 .69 11 ±.21 7 .64 14 ±.28 7 .59 15 ±.21 8 .70 14 ±.21 7 opts Z .77 14 ±.14 7 .67 13 ±.20 5 .62 12 ±.27 6 .54 11 ±.21 7 .68 13 ±.21 6 oppts Z .77 14 ±.16 7 .66 13 ±.23 7 .62 12 ±.26 5 .54 11 ±.20 6 .68 13 ±.22 6 during model selection. This constraint is introduced to enhance interpretability, as excessive complexity would hinder this aspect. Notably, all PivotTree-based models and baselines, except for ebl, naturally select approximately 20 pivots even when no such constraint is imposed. For completeness, we report results for the unconstrained setting in the Appendix A, along with detailed performance metrics for each model on individual datasets. When a decision tree is adopted as interpretable predictive models f , as presented in Table 2, PivotTree and its variants emerge as the most effective pivot selection methods in terms of both performance and complexity. Specifically, for tabular data, ptc Z , pts Z , and opptc Z rank as the second-best performing models, positioned just behind standard decision trees dt X and with comparable performance to ripper X and irep X , which are particularly effective when applied on images. These models outperform their competitors while requiring fewer pivots to achieve strong predictive performance. For images, pptc Z and opptc Z not only exceed the performance of the standard counterparts but also enhance interpretability due to their case-based rea- soning structure. Regarding time-series data, ppts Z performs comparably to kmd, dt, and odt. In the case of text data, ptc Z and pts Z , achieves the best performance, surpassing competitors while requiring fewer pivots. When considering performance across all data modalities, the ptc Z and pts Z variants consistently emerge as the second-best models, ranking immediately after standard decision trees dt X . As shown in Table 3, similar observations can be made when knn is used as inter- pretable predictive models f . In general, when employing pivot selection methods, we 18 Table 3: Average weighted F1-score± std. dev. for PivotTree selectors combined with knn (limited to at most 20 pivots), baselines, and competitors. Subscripts indicate the average number of pivots± std. dev. Best results in bold, second best in italics. model tabular images time-series text all knn X .83±.13.94±.05.68±.27.61±.22.79±.20 kms Z .80 13 ±.14 6 .93 13 ±.06 5 .68 14 ±.24 6 .58 15 ±.22 4 .77 14 ±.20 5 kmd Z .81 15 ±.14 5 .93 14 ±.06 6 .68 12 ±.24 5 .60 19 ±.22 3 .78 15 ±.19 5 ebl Z .82 20 ±.14 3 .93 19 ±.07 4 .68 17 ±.24 6 .62 20 ±.23 2 .79 19 ±.20 4 pts Z .82 12 ±.14 5 .93 15 ±.05 3 .69 12 ±.25 7 .62 13 ±.23 4 .79 13 ±.19 5 ppts Z .82 12 ±.14 6 .93 16 ±.05 7 .69 15 ±.25 5 .61 16 ±.22 7 .78 14 ±.20 6 opts Z .81 13 ±.14 5 .93 15 ±.07 7 .67 13 ±.25 5 .60 17 ±.22 8 .78 14 ±.20 6 oppts Z .81 15 ±.14 5 .92 14 ±.07 5 .67 12 ±.24 7 .58 14 ±.22 4 .77 14 ±.20 5 kms P .72 16 ±.20 5 .92 16 ±.07 5 .58 16 ±.28 5 .50 17 ±.20 6 .70 16 ±.24 5 kmd P .71 17 ±.20 4 .91 11 ±.12 6 .57 16 ±.29 5 .53 15 ±.20 5 .70 15 ±.24 5 ebl P .80 20 ±.14 3 .93 17 ±.06 6 .61 20 ±.29 1 .58 19 ±.22 5 .76 19 ±.22 4 pts P .71 12 ±.17 4 .80 10 ±.22 5 .56 13 ±.26 5 .54 13 ±.21 5 .67 12 ±.22 5 ppts P .72 10 ±.19 7 .65 14 ±.32 7 .57 12 ±.28 6 .50 13 ±.23 9 .64 12 ±.25 7 opts P .73 12 ±.18 6 .73 14 ±.25 6 .54 13 ±.28 5 .54 15 ±.23 9 .66 13 ±.24 6 oppts P .75 12 ±.18 9 .60 12 ±.35 7 .55 12 ±.29 7 .47 10 ±.29 5 .64 12 ±.27 7 observe that training knn on the entire training set using the similarity feature rep- resentation Z yields better results than operating in the original feature space only considering the selected pivots P . For tabular data, pts Z and ppts Z perform on par with ebl Z as the second-best models, trailing the standard knn model by a single unit of difference while requiring fewer pivots for prediction. A similar trend is observed for images, although in this case, all models tend to achieve comparable performance when using similarity-based representations. Notably, ebl P achieves remarkable per- formance also in the original feature space. For time-series data, pts Z and ppts Z surpass standard knn X , while for text data, they outperform knn X and achieve the same performance as ebl Z , again requiring less pivots. When considering all data types, pts Z demonstrates performance comparable to knn X and ebl Z while utilizing fewer pivots than competing approaches and therefore being more interpretable. To further support our findings, we perform a statistical significance comparison among models across all datasets. We visualize the ranking of all methods relative to each other using the critical difference plots presented in Figure 3. In these plots, lower rank values indicate better-performing models, with the best ranks positioned on the right (refer to [65] for details). In Figure 3, methods that are statistically equivalent according to a post-hoc Nemenyi test are connected by black lines, indi- cating no significant difference in their performance. To ensure a fair comparison without increasing the number of hypotheses (i.e., models considered), which would risk widening the critical difference threshold, we restrict the set of methods included in the statistical analysis. For tree-based classifiers, we report only ptc Z and pptc Z , corresponding to the standard standalone classification variants of PivotTree. The 19 12345678910 DT X 3.9889 ODT X 4.0111 PTC Z 4.4667 PPTC Z 4.7000 EBL Z 4.9111 KMD Z 5.6778 RIPPER X 6.0000 KMS Z 6.5667 IREP X 6.6556 GRULE X 8.0222 F1-score DT 12345 PTC Z 1.6889 PPTC Z 2.6444 KMS Z 3.0111 KMD Z 3.2111 EBL Z 4.4444 Number of pivots DT 123456 KNN X 2.7667 EBL Z 3.2667 PTS Z 3.4556 PPTS Z 3.7556 KMD Z 3.7889 KMS Z 3.9667 F1-score KNN 12345 PTS Z 2.3222 KMS Z 2.5667 PPTS Z 2.7222 KMD Z 2.9556 EBL Z 4.4333 Number of pivots KNN Fig. 3: Critical difference plot of model’s rank in terms of weighted F1-score and number of pivots against each other with Nemenyi test w.r.t all datasets, considering standard PivotTree variants. Models that are not significantly different at 95% significance level are connected. Best models on the right. oblique versions are excluded, as they do not yield a meaningful performance improve- ment. Furthermore, employing these approaches either as standalone classifiers or as selectors within tree-based methods leads to comparable results, hence our decisions to only keep standalone classifiers in the comparison. When comparing against knn, center-based clustering selection methods, and ebl, we focus exclusively on pts Z and ppts Z , which represent the best-performing variants in this context. Variants trained w.r.t. selected instances in the original feature space are also excluded from the critical difference analysis, as they consistently demonstrate lower overall performance. 14 We observe that for tree-based models (top), the univariate strategies of pt and ppt, rank among the top-performing models. These models show no statistically significant dif- ference in performance compared to standard baselines and ebl, even surpassing the latter for both variants, and surpassing other rule-based baseline methods. Moreover, in terms of complexity measured as number of pivots adopted, PivotTree variants rank among the least complex models while exhibiting statistically significant differ- ences from competitors for ptc Z . For knn models (bottom), pts Z and ppts Z achieve strong rankings. In terms of performance, they are surpassed only by knn and ebl Z , from which they remain statistically indistinguishable. Additionally, pts Z outperforms all competitors in terms of low complexity, further reinforcing its interpretability. Although time complexity is not the primary focus of this paper, we report for completeness the training runtime (in seconds) of PivotTree variants on representa- tive datasets of varying sizes and dimensionalities. In Table 4, we report training time in seconds of variants of ptc in comparison with feature-based rule-based methods. Although time complexity is not the primary focus of this paper, we report for com- pleteness the training runtime (in seconds) of PivotTree variants on representative datasets of varying sizes and dimensionalities. 14 For completeness, Appendix A reports the critical difference plots including all methods not directly presented in this section. 20 Table 4: Training time (in seconds) across representative datasets of varying size and dimensionality. For each dataset, best result in bold, second best in italics. model breast worms cifar10 tgpt magic svhn ptc Z 0.680.5238.4814.1471.8664.38 pptc Z 1.561.62176.3817.6770.10294.74 optc Z 3.021.0393.3324.16214.30143.36 opptc Z 4.483.98400.3831.99177.48515.77 dt Z 0.050.071.6425.222.8441.44 grule Z 0.090.331.404.610.050.62 ripper Z 0.74424.001468.00288.008.88993.00 irep Z 0.59421.001403.00531.001.261614.00 On small datasets such as breast and worms, ptc Z and pptc Z require 0.68s and 1.56s on breast, and 0.52s and 1.62s on worms, respectively. The oblique variants ropt Z and roppt Z take 3.02s and 4.48s on breast, and 1.03s and 3.98s on worms. On the other hand, the standard univariate dt exhibits very low training times, requiring 0.05s and 0.07s on the breast and worms datasets, respectively. In comparison, grule, ripper, and irep require 0.09s, 0.74s, and 0.59s on breast, and 0.33s, 424s, and 421s on worms, respectively. The significantly longer training times observed on worms are mainly due to the high dimensionality of the dataset. For higher-dimensional datasets such as cifar10 and tgpt, training times increase substantially. On cifar10, ptc Z and pptc Z require 38.48s and 176.38s, while ropt Z and roppt Z take 93.33s and 400.38s. On tgpt, the respective times are 14.14s and 17.67s for ptc Z and pptc Z , and 24.16s and 31.99s for ropt Z and roppt Z . On cifar10, the standard univariate dt and grule Z exhibit fast training times (1.64s and 1.40s, respectively), whereas rule-based methods such as ripper Z and irep Z require substantially longer training times (1468s and 1403s). A similar trend is observed on tgpt, where dt Z and grule Z train in 25.22s and 4.61s, while ripper Z and irep Z require 288s and 531s, respectively. Analogous results can be observed for larger datasets. On magic, ptc Z and pptc Z require 71.86s and 70.10s, while the oblique variants ropt Z and roppt Z take 214.30s and 177.48s, respectively. On the large-scale svhn dataset, ptc Z and pptc Z require 64.38s and 294.74s, whereas ropt Z and roppt Z need 143.36s and 515.77s, respec- tively. On magic, grule Z achieves the shortest training time (0.05s), followed by dt Z (2.84s), whereas ripper Z and irep Z require 8.88s and 1.26s. A markedly different behavior is observed on svhn Z , where dt Z and grule Z takes respectively 41.44s and 0.62s, but ripper Z and irep Z scale poorly, requiring 993s and 1614s, respectively. On the other hand, prediction times remain relatively fast across all methods. For example, on breast, ptc Z requires only 0.03s for inference, while ropt Z takes 0.129s. These values are comparable to those of irep and ripper, which require 0.06s and 0.07s, respectively, and are only moderately higher than that of dt Z , which requires just 0.002s for prediction. On svhn, prediction times range from a minimum of 4.51s for ptc Z to a maximum of 7.41s for roppt Z , while dt Z requires 0.06s, but irep Z and ripper Z much more with 2291s and 4282s. 21 Table 5: Average weighted F1-score± std. dev. for RandomPivotForest with 100 PivotTree classifiers as estimators, and no sampling, against baselines. When the splitting stump forest is adopted, subscripts indicate the average num- ber of stumps ± std. dev. Best results in bold, second best in italics. model tabular images time-series text all xgb.87±.12.94±.04.72±.27.70±.25.83±.19 lgbm.87±.12.95±.04.69±.26.70±.25.82±.19 catb.87±.12.94±.05.72±.26.69±.25.83±.19 rdt.80±.16.94±.04.68±.28.55±.25.77±.22 rodt.80±.16.94±.05.67±.28.55±.25.76±.22 rpt.80±.16.76±.16.68±.28.58±.25.74±.21 ropt.78±.16.77±.15.68±.28.52±.25.72±.22 rppt.78±.17.93±.04.66±.27.54±.26.75±.22 roppt.78±.16.93±.03.66±.27.53±.25.75±.22 rdt s .70 72 ±.17 84 .91 282 ±.10 375 .62 206 ±.24 205 .57 185 ±.20 97 .71 159 ±.21 213 rodt s .72 90 ±.16 74 .92 280 ±.09 330 .63 207 ±.23 212 .56 200 ±.19 101 .72 169 ±.20 196 rpt s .71 80 ±.16 61 .81 189 ±.27 127 .63 163 ±.22 236 .56 175 ±.20 103 .69 133 ±.21 139 ropt s .71 91 ±.16 74 .74 122 ±.32 123 .62 165 ±.24 233 .57 196 ±.20 95 .68 128 ±.22 137 rppt s .71 149 ±.16 120 .93 168 ±.06 159 .64 277 ±.22 290 .57 147 ±.21 54 .72 181 ±.20 176 roppt s .71 100 ±.17 91 .92 175 ±.09 186 .64 268 ±.22 253 .56 149 ±.20 83 .72 159 ±.20 168 rdt b .59 53 ±.22 60 .34 368 ±.36 455 .51 136 ±.21 116 .38 98 ±.20 87 .50 140 ±.26 239 rodt b .60 102 ±.22 113 .35 190 ±.34 404 .47 101 ±.19 82 .40 108 ±.24 89 .49 120 ±.26 197 rpt b .63 56 ±.21 41 .37 134 ±.35 130 .49 82 ±.23 107 .38 157 ±.20 143 .52 91 ±.26 100 ropt b .61 65 ±.19 51 .37 112 ±.34 124 .48 63 ±.23 55 .36 97 ±.18 93 .50 78 ±.25 77 rppt b .59 63 ±.21 45 .36 89 ±.39 134 .50 111 ±.22 139 .41 46 ±.27 31 .50 76 ±.27 93 roppt b .61 62 ±.19 56 .33 59 ±.36 60 .46 90 ±.21 87 .33 144 ±.17 203 .48 79 ±.26 95 As a final remark, if we were to suggest a PivotTree variant, our choice would likely be ppts Z . While its performance is comparable to that of pts Z and ptc Z when combined with knn, it offers a higher level of interpretability when paired with dt. This is because it enables decision-making through a hierarchical process in which a test instance is compared against two pivots, guiding the traversal along two distinct directions. Such hierarchical splits are particularly advantageous for modalities like images or text, where relative similarity to exemplar instances is often more intu- itive than absolute distance thresholds. Conversely, in settings where a precise global distance threshold is desirable and where the original feature space has transparent semantics, variants such as pts Z may be preferable, since examining the contribu- tion of individual feature components and comparing them to an absolute distance threshold could offer additional insight into why instances are considered similar. More generally, the choice of the downstream classifier also depends on whether the task pri- oritizes local or global explanations: pairing PivotTree with knn emphasizes local neighbourhood reasoning, whereas pairing it with dts emphasizes a global, structured, and fully interpretable decision process. Random Pivot Forest Evaluation. Table 5 compares the performance of ensem- ble methods using the entire training set for each estimator. We recall to the reader 22 that in RandomPivotForest we exclusively use PivotTrees classifiers as base estimators, i.e., ptc, pptc, optc, opptc for the different types of forests which are named accordingly as rpt, rppt, ropt, roppt, with the c omitted as the selector option is not considered with ensemble. We also remind the reader that we use the subscripts s and b to indicate different approaches for utilizing the splitting stump forest to reduce forest complexity. Specifically, s denotes the use of logistic regression for classification, as proposed in [27], while b refers to classification based on major- ity voting. When the splitting stump forest is not used, for tabular dataset, rpt achieves the same performance as the standard Random Forest (rdt) and oblique Random Forest (rodt). Overall, boosting-based approaches outperform both feature- based and case-based random forest models in our experimental evaluation. Notably, for the images modality, the proximity-based variant rppt substantially outperforms its univariate counterpart, achieving performance levels comparable to those of rdt and rodt, which in turn approach the performance attained by the boosting-based methods. Moreover, RandomPivotForests retain a degree of interpretability, as trans- parency within the ensemble can, in principle, be recovered through feature importance analysis, capturing the contribution of training instances to predictions, or by employ- ing methods that extract standalone explanations from tree ensembles [52, 53]. A comprehensive investigation of these aspects is left for future work. Nevertheless, this potential provides a level of interpretability that is not available in standard models based on CNN-derived feature representations. For the time-series datasets, the best performance is achieved by boosting-based approaches. Nonetheless, rpt and ropt obtain results comparable to the standard rdt, highlighting their competitiveness within the class of randomized tree-based methods, even though they do not outper- form the boosting models. For the text datasets, rpt achieves the best performance among the randomized tree-based methods, outperforming the standard rdt and rodt. However, its performance is still surpassed by the boosting-based approaches. Finally, when considering all data types together, comparable results are obtained across all random forests. We also highlight that, consistently with [66], the theoret- ically enhanced expressiveness of multivariate splits compared to univariate splits is not empirically confirmed. This holds true both for individual trees and for forests of trees, with univariate trees consistently outperforming their oblique counterparts. When the splitting stump forest is employed, we observe a notable decrease in per- formance for the tabular and time-series datasets. In contrast, for images and text, the performance remains comparatively stable, indicating that the alternative representation is still effective for these data types. We notice that in this setting, proximity-based models tend to outperform other PivotTree variants. Additionally, we find that relying solely on the resulting stumps as predictive ensembles, i.e., meth- ods denoted with the subscript b, leads to generally unsatisfactory results across all approaches. This reinforces the advantage of using logistic regression, i.e., subscript s, for prediction over simple majority voting. Finally, given the relatively high num- ber of stumps required to achieve competitive performance, we conclude that, at least within the RandomPivotForest framework, the intended complexity reduction is 23 Table 6: Average weighted F1-score ± std. dev. for RandomPivotForest with 100 PivotTree classifiers as estimators, and 10% of the training set is used to train each estimator, against baselines. When the splitting stump forest is adopted, subscripts indicate the average number of stumps ± std. dev. Best results in bold, second best in italics. model tabular images time-series text all xgb.86±.12.94±.04.66±.25.68±.25.81±.19 lgbm.87±.12.95±.04.69±.26.70±.25.82±.19 catb.86±.12.95±.04.72±.27.68±.25.83±.19 rdt.78±.17.93±.04.61±.26.51±.27.74±.23 rodt.77±.17.93±.05.62±.25.51±.27.74±.23 rpt.78±.16.86±.10.64±.26.57±.24.73±.21 ropt.76±.17.86±.11.64±.26.52±.24.72±.21 rppt.77±.16.93±.05.63±.26.53±.25.74±.22 roppt.77±.16.93±.05.63±.26.52±.25.74±.22 rdt s .70 74 ±.16 72 .92 236 ±.09 320 .63 191 ±.23 190 .56 150 ±.19 63 .71 142 ±.20 182 rodt s .71 89 ±.16 59 .92 199 ±.09 185 .63 189 ±.22 194 .56 197 ±.19 109 .71 148 ±.20 140 rpt s .70 86 ±.16 44 .65 69 ±.22 51 .62 112 ±.23 82 .56 158 ±.20 72 .66 98 ±.19 64 ropt s .71 75 ±.16 50 .68 49 ±.25 46 .62 107 ±.23 84 .56 144 ±.19 69 .66 86 ±.20 66 rppt s .71 127 ±.17 99 .92 138 ±.07 116 .63 224 ±.23 208 .57 169 ±.20 80 .72 157 ±.20 133 roppt s .71 106 ±.16 99 .90 145 ±.09 112 .64 193 ±.22 149 .57 162 ±.20 88 .71 141 ±.20 115 rdt b .61 82 ±.21 73 .28 141 ±.28 152 .52 61 ±.24 68 .38 98 ±.22 59 .49 91 ±.26 93 rodt b .59 71 ±.21 53 .22 200 ±.26 191 .51 76 ±.23 82 .37 86 ±.18 65 .47 100 ±.26 111 rpt b .63 72 ±.21 47 .36 54 ±.36 69 .48 68 ±.21 41 .36 89 ±.20 107 .51 70 ±.27 60 ropt b .62 69 ±.20 47 .33 48 ±.33 70 .50 59 ±.22 54 .36 41 ±.18 46 .50 59 ±.26 53 rppt b .58 73 ±.22 51 .34 92 ±.36 72 .47 81 ±.23 49 .35 47 ±.15 44 .48 75 ±.26 55 roppt b .60 70 ±.21 45 .33 124 ±.32 157 .47 103 ±.25 100 .38 41 ±.18 18 .49 84 ±.26 91 not effectively realized for many approaches and data types. This suggests the need for further investigation in this direction. Table 6 reports the same methods as those in Table 5, with the only difference being that only 10% of the training set is used to train each estimator. This study aims to evaluate whether a significant reduction in the training set size, which can speed up the training of the individual PivotTrees, still guarantees acceptable performance. By comparing the two tables, we observe that most approaches tend to slightly suffer from the reduction in the training set size of the base estimator. Boosting-based approaches, including catb, xgb, and lgbm, exhibit consistently strong and stable performance across the evaluated datasets even when sampling is introduced, confirming their effectiveness. For tabular data, there is a very small reduction in performance, with the RandomPivotForest approaches and the RandomPivotForest with split- ting stump forests achieving almost the same performance. In contrast, for images, we notice an opposite trend, with performance improving under the reduced sampling context for rpt and ropt, though there remains a significant gap when compared to the best model variants, which tend to achieve the same results w.r.t the ones obtained using the full training set. On the other hand, using a splitting stump strat- egy degrades their performance, in contrast to the full dataset scenario. Notably, for 24 Table 7: Training time (seconds) using the full dataset (100%) and a sampled subset (10%). Best results per dataset and sample subset size are in bold, second best in italics. All models use base estimators with maxdepth = 4. breast worms cifar10 tgpt magic svhn model 100% 10%100% 10%100% 10%100% 10%100% 10%100% 10% rpt 0.49 0.130.47 0.122.76 0.393.51 1.182.141.7418.63 0.69 rppt1.130.321.810.514.211.602.021.653.751.6517.09 0.68 rdt0.65 0.080.26 0.091.09 0.231.08 0.401.34 0.640.92 0.32 lgbm 0.30 0.30 0.920.9245.37 41.977.217.160.89 0.8755.19 50.12 time-series data, rpt and ropt emerge as the best models in this scenario, out- performing rdt and rodt in the standard ensemble context, while at the same time matching or surpassing their performance in the splitting stump context. For text, rpt maintains analogous performance to the no sampling scenario, with only a slight degradation compared to the full dataset case, both in the standard ensemble setup and when using splitting stumps. Finally, we notice that when generally evaluated on all data types, in the sampling context rppt and roppt reach the same average performance of rdt, matching its performance also in the splitting stump scenario. In Table 7, we report the training times (in seconds) of RandomPivotForest variants on representative datasets of varying size and dimensionality. In particu- lar, we compare training times obtained using the full training dataset (100%) with those obtained from a 10% sampled subset. We report the training times (in seconds) of RandomPivotForest variants on example datasets of varying sizes and dimen- sionalities. All results shown concern base estimators with maxdepth = 4, and we compare training times using the full dataset versus 10% sampled subsets. We focus on univariate variants of rpt and rppt, as oblique ones did not show relevant deviations. On small-sized datasets such as breast and worms, training times for rpt and rppt using the full training set are 0.49s and 1.13s on breast, and 0.47s and 1.81s on worms, respectively. These training times are comparable to those of our standard rdt implementation, which requires 0.65s on breast and 0.26s on worms, and are also in line with lgbm, which requires 0.30s on breast and 0.92s on worms. When using only 10% of the training data, training times for rpt and rppt further decrease to 0.13s and 0.32s on breast, and to 0.12s and 0.51s on worms, respectively. Under the same setting, rdt requires 0.08s on breast and 0.09s on worms, while lgbm requires 0.30s and 0.92s on breast and worms, respectively. A similar trend is observed on medium-sized datasets. For cifar10, full-data train- ing times are 2.76s for rpt and 4.21s for rppt, whereas sampled training reduces these to 0.39s and 1.60s, respectively. For tgpt, training on the full dataset requires 3.51s for rpt and 2.02s for rppt, while sampled training lowers this to 1.18s and 1.65s. On the full training set, rdt requires 1.09s and 1.08s on cifar10 and tgpt, respectively, while lgbm requires 45.37s on cifar10 and 7.21s on tgpt. When using only 10% of the training data, the training time of rdt decreases to 0.23s on cifar10 and 0.40s on tgpt, whereas lgbm remains significantly more expensive, requiring 41.97s and 7.16s on cifar10 and tgpt, respectively. 25 123456789 LGBM 2.7667 XGB 2.9778 CATB 2.9889 RPT 5.2111 RDT 5.5778 RODT 5.7111 RPPT 6.2333 ROPPT 6.4333 ROPT 7.1000 F1-score (no sampling) 123456789 LGBM 2.2333 CATB 2.5000 XGB 3.5000 RPPT 5.7444 RPT 5.8000 ROPPT 6.0111 RDT 6.0889 RODT 6.3889 ROPT 6.7333 F1-score (10% sampling) Fig. 4: Critical difference plots of ensemble models’ rankings in terms of weighted F1-score, evaluated using the Nemenyi test across all datasets for best performing RandomPivotForest variants in comparison with baselines. Models that are not significantly different at the 95% significance level are connected. The best models are positioned on the right. For larger datasets, the performance gains are more substantial. Training times for rdt and lgbm vary significantly across datasets and data sampling. For rdt, train- ing on magic requires 1.34s, which decreases to 0.64s when only 10% of the data is used, while on svhn, training requires 0.92s, reducing to 0.32s with 10% sampling. In comparison, lgbm is generally faster on magic, requiring 0.89s for the full dataset and 0.87s for 10% sampling, but considerably slower on svhn, requiring 55.19s for the full dataset and 50.12s with 10% sampling. On magic, training on the full dataset requires 2.14s for rpt and 3.75s for rppt; using the sampled context, training times drop to 1.74s and 1.65s, respectively. On the large-scale svhn dataset, full training times are 18.63s for rpt and 17.09s for rppt, while with sampling, they are signif- icantly reduced to 0.69s and 0.68s. These aspects highlight that even when using a small percentage of the training set, satisfactory predictive performance can still be achieved, while significantly speeding up training time. In terms of prediction times, all RandomPivotForest variants exhibit similar performance across both the full training and sampled settings, with times generally around 1s for all datasets consid- ered. The minimum prediction time is 0.167s for rpt on breast, while the maximum is 1.23s for rppt on tgpt. We complement our analysis with statistical significance tests in the ensemble con- text reported in Figure 4. Also in this case, to ensure a fair comparison, we restrict the analysis to the standard RandomPivotForest variants without the splitting- stump strategy and evaluate them against the corresponding baselines 15 . Notably, while Tables 5 and 6 indicate that, although RandomPivotForests models do not always achieve the highest average mean performance, they attain the best rankings when compared to feature-based Random Forests approaches when a relative com- parison per dataset is conducted using the Nemenyi test in both the no-sampling and 10% sampling scenarios. In the no-sampling scenario, rpt ranks as the best model among the Random Forests, followed by rdt, rodt, and rppt, with no statistically significant differences among them. Similarly, in the 10% sampling scenario, rpt and rppt occupy the top ranks in terms of performance, followed by other models. 15 For completeness, in Appendix A we also report the critical difference plots including the splitting- stump forest variants. 26 Table 8: Average weighted F1-score± std. dev. for PivotTree classifiers and selec- tors combined with dt in the unconstrained setting, alongside baselines and competing methods, with respect to different distance measures. Subscripts denote the average number of pivots ± standard deviation (rounded up to nearest integer). Best results are shown in bold, and second-best results in italics. model tabular images time-series text all euclidean ptc Z .79 11 ±.14 3 .69 11 ±.20 4 .64 9 ±.27 3 .59 13 ±.21 2 .71 11 ±.21 3 pptc Z .80 14 ±.14 4 .73 11 ±.17 5 .63 12 ±.25 6 .58 12 ±.21 3 .72 13 ±.20 4 optc Z .76 17 ±.15 6 .68 15 ±.20 6 .63 13 ±.26 6 .55 23 ±.21 4 .68 16 ±.20 6 opptc Z .79 13 ±.14 5 .73 12 ±.21 6 .59 11 ±.28 7 .55 14 ±.20 4 .70 12 ±.21 5 pts Z .79 39 ±.14 19 .69 50 ±.20 21 .63 35 ±.28 31 .60 61 ±.21 32 .71 43 ±.21 25 ppts Z .78 37 ±.14 24 .69 55 ±.21 39 .64 37 ±.27 36 .59 52 ±.21 45 .71 43 ±.20 33 opts Z .78 50 ±.14 30 .68 66 ±.20 36 .63 47 ±.26 48 .58 96 ±.21 68 .70 59 ±.20 43 oppts Z .79 46 ±.15 31 .69 69 ±.21 49 .61 40 ±.26 34 .56 76 ±.20 60 .70 53 ±.21 41 cosine ptc Z .81 11 ±.13 3 .69 11 ±.20 4 .65 10 ±.26 4 .60 12 ±.22 2 .72 11 ±.20 3 pptc Z .80 12 ±.14 5 .87 15 ±.10 4 .65 17 ±.24 7 .59 14 ±.22 5 .75 14 ±.19 6 optc Z .78 17 ±.15 5 .68 16 ±.20 5 .65 13 ±.27 5 .58 21 ±.22 5 .70 16 ±.21 5 opptc Z .80 13 ±.13 5 .80 15 ±.13 4 .63 15 ±.25 7 .59 11 ±.22 4 .73 14 ±.19 5 pts Z .82 42 ±.13 23 .69 51 ±.20 24 .66 36 ±.25 31 .60 62 ±.21 34 .73 45 ±.20 27 ppts Z .81 34 ±.14 31 .68 77 ±.20 55 .64 46 ±.26 36 .60 54 ±.23 45 .72 48 ±.20 42 opts Z .80 50 ±.14 26 .69 69 ±.20 36 .63 43 ±.26 33 .59 87 ±.22 63 .71 57 ±.21 38 oppts Z .79 51 ±.13 42 .68 111 ±.21 72 .64 61 ±.25 56 .59 67 ±.21 52 .71 67 ±.20 56 manhattan ptc Z .78 12 ±.14 3 .68 10 ±.21 3 .63 9 ±.26 4 .58 13 ±.20 2 .70 11 ±.20 3 pptc Z .80 13 ±.14 5 .74 12 ±.19 6 .65 14 ±.25 6 .58 12 ±.22 3 .73 13 ±.20 5 optc Z .77 16 ±.16 5 .68 16 ±.20 6 .64 15 ±.26 6 .54 22 ±.19 4 .69 17 ±.21 6 opptc Z .78 51 ±.14 31 .69 74 ±.21 39 .65 46 ±.25 36 .56 66 ±.21 43 .71 56 ±.20 36 pts Z .79 41 ±.14 20 .69 48 ±.21 25 .63 36 ±.26 31 .58 63 ±.20 38 .71 44 ±.21 27 ppts Z .79 36 ±.15 24 .69 54 ±.21 38 .64 37 ±.25 27 .59 50 ±.21 35 .71 42 ±.21 29 opts Z .80 49 ±.14 21 .69 70 ±.21 37 .65 48 ±.26 37 .56 88 ±.20 66 .71 58 ±.21 38 oppts Z .78 50 ±.14 30 .69 73 ±.21 39 .65 45 ±.25 35 .56 66 ±.21 42 .71 56 ±.20 35 As an overall remark for the ensemble scenario, we recommend rpt as a robust and reliable variant among the tested RandomPivotForest methods across tabular, time-series, and text domains. In the absence of any sampling strategy during training, rpt matches the performance of both rdt and rodt on tabular and time-series data. It further outperforms all alternatives in the text domain, bene- fitting from training trees in a more interpretable similarity space. The only exception is in the images domain, where rppt and roppt variants significantly outperform all other RandomPivotForest methods. When sampling strategies are applied, we observe that training efficiency improves considerably, while predictive performance remains stable and competitive. Cru- cially, the main strengths of top-performing RandomPivotForest variants are also preserved in the sampling scenario. In comparing ensemble methods to single-model configurations, ensemble-based approaches tend to yield better results than the latter methods paired with dt. However, they still lag behind PivotTree variants used as selectors with knn, suggesting that even a single trained PivotTree combined with knn can produce 27 Table 9: Average weighted F1-score ± std. dev. for RandomPivotForest with 100 PivotTree estimators, where each estimator is trained on 10% of the training set. Results are reported for different distance measures. Best results are shown in bold, and second-best results in italics. model tabular images time-series text all euclidean rpt.78± .16.86± .10.64± .26.57± .24 .73± .21 ropt.76± .17.86± .11.64± .26.52± .24.72± .21 rppt.77± .17 .93± .05.63± .26.53± .25 .74± .22 roppt .77± .17 .93± .05.63± .26.52± .25 .74± .22 cosine rpt.77± .16.88± .09.63± .26.58± .24 .73± .21 ropt.76± .17.87± .09.64± .26.54± .24.73± .21 rppt.76± .17 .94± .04.62± .26.56± .24 .74± .22 roppt.76± .16 .94± .05.64± .26.54± .24 .74± .22 manhattan rpt.78± .16.86± .10.64± .26.55± .24.73± .21 ropt.77± .17.87± .09.64± .26.52± .24.72± .22 rppt.78± .17 .93± .05.63± .26.52± .25 .74± .23 roppt .78± .16 .93± .05.63± .26.52± .26 .74± .23 reliable and robust performance across data types. Based on the results, different models may be preferred depending on the desired trade-off between interpretabil- ity and performance. While simpler models or more interpretable structures may be attractive in settings where transparency and explainability are critical, PivotTree combined with knn consistently demonstrates stronger predictive performance. This indicates that the selector role played by PivotTree is effective at identifying infor- mative partitions of the feature space, allowing knn to operate on more relevant local neighborhoods. Furthermore, the results suggest that the benefits of this hybrid approach are not limited to a specific dataset or data distribution. Across multiple experimental set- tings, the PivotTree-based selectors maintain stable behavior, highlighting their robustness and general applicability. In practice, this makes them a compelling choice when performance is prioritized and when moderate model complexity is acceptable. At the same time, their tree-based structure still provides a degree of interpretability, offering some insight into how the data is partitioned before the final knn-based pre- diction is performed. If interpretability is a primary concern and a similarity-based knn approach is suitable, we recommend ppts Z with knn due to its consistent per- formance and conceptual simplicity. For scenarios where faster inference time than knn is required and a more structured set of rules is beneficial, rpt emerges as the preferred choice due to its broad applicability across data types. The only exception is in the images domain, where rppt achieves superior performance. Finally, if a stan- dalone single interpretable tree structure is desired, both ptc Z and pptc Z are strong and reliable candidates, suitable for most data types. Impact of Distance Measures Evaluation. We complete our quantitative analysis by analyzing the impact of different distance measures on the overall performance of PivotTree and RandomPivotForest vari- ants across different data modalities. As reference distance measures, we compare the 28 standard Euclidean distance used in the main experiments with the Manhattan and cosine distances. Since our objective in this context is to compare the effect of various distance measures on model performance, we fix to 4 the parameter maxdepth of the trees, both when used as standalone models and within ensembles, and compare their performance on the same test set for each dataset used in previous experiments. For ensemble variants, we fix the number of samples used to train each estimator to 10% of the training set, while for standalone models we work in the unconstrained setting w.r.t. the number of pivots. Table 8 reports the average weighted F1-score of the different PivotTree variants w.r.t. different distance measures and across multi- ple data modalities. Overall, performance appears largely comparable across distance measures, both when PivotTree is employed directly as a classification model and when it is used as a selector in combination with dt. Interestingly, a different trend emerges for the images modality, where a substantial improvement is observed when cosine distance is adopted. In particular, pptc Z achieves the strongest results in this setting. This behaviour may be influenced by the specific architectures used to extract latent representations from images, suggesting that the choice of distance measure should be carefully considered when applying PivotTree variants to domains that rely on learned feature embeddings. In our experiments, we also assessed model per- formance in terms of different distance measures using the Nemenyi post-hoc test. The results indicate that there are no statistically significant differences among the differ- ent PivotTree variants employing different distance measures at the 95% significance level. We complete the analysis of the impact of distance measures by reporting in Table 9 the weighted F1-score achieved by the different RandomPivotForest vari- ants. In this setting, the results are largely comparable across distance measures, with no single distance measure consistently emerging as the best choice across all data modalities. Also in this case, the Nemenyi post-hoc test conducted in our experiments revealed that the ensembles of PivotTrees are statistically indistinguishable. 4.3 Qualitative Results In the following, we illustrate some qualitative examples on different data types to show the usability of PivotTree at prediction and explanation time using a decision tree as interpretable model f . In Figure 5, we report an example of prediction and explanation on cifar10 using ptc Z 16 . The trained ptc Z identifies a single pivot per node and performs splits based on similarity to a threshold value: given a hypothetical instance x to predict, the predictive reasoning employed by the trained model proceeds as follows: x is first compared to p 718 , an instance of an ship class. If it is similar enough to such instance, meaning s(x,p 718 ) ≥ 0.73, it is then compared to p 1008 , an example of deer. If x is sufficiently similar to p 1008 (s(x,p 1008 ) ≥ 4.48) the model performs a further check with another airplane instance, p 442 . If x is similar enough to p 442 (s(x,p 1008 )≥ 1.58), then it is identified as an airplane, otherwise as a deer. Analogous reasoning applies for remaining branches. 16 For visualization purposes, rules of the form “s(x,p i )≥ β” are reported as “s(x,p i )≥⌈μ⌉−β”, where μ is the maximum threshold value found in the trained tree. 29 Fig. 5: Example of ptc Z with maxdepth = 4 on cifar10. Only partial structure shown for visualization purposes. The trained ptc Z identifies a single pivot per node and performs splits based on similarity to a threshold value: given a hypothetical instance x to predict, the predictive reasoning employed by the trained model proceeds as follows: x is first compared to p 718 , an instance of an ship class. If it is similar enough to such instance, meaning s(x,p 718 ) ≥ 0.73, it is then compared to p 1008 , an example of deer. If x is sufficiently similar to p 1008 (s(x,p 1008 ) ≥ 4.48) the model performs a further check with another airplane instance, p 442 . If x is similar enough to p 442 (s(x,p 1008 )≥ 1.58), then it is identified as an airplane, otherwise as a deer. Analogous reasoning applies for remaining branches. We notice that, in this process, pivots are selected with a clear variety in their semantic role within the tree. For instance, the initial comparison with a ship pivot provides a coarse-grained separation of instances that resemble large structured objects, while subsequent pivots such as the deer or frog examples perform progressively finer distinctions among remaining candidates. This qualitative diversity highlights how each pivot contributes a specific semantic cue that guides the decision process along the path of the tree. Instead, in Figure 6 we report the proximity-based variant obtained for the same dataset. In the case of pptc Z , the splitting strategy differs, leading also to a different selection of pivots. Given a hypothetical instance x to classify, it is first compared to p 1297 (an airplane) and p 1540 (an automobile). If x is closer to p 1540 , it follows the right branch. In this case, it is then compared to p 8 (another automobile) and to p 1220 , a ship, for further validation. If x is found to be more similar to p 1220 than to p 8 , the model classifies it as a ship. This reasoning can be interpreted in natural 30 Fig. 6: Example of pptc Z with maxdepth = 4 on cifar10. Only partial structure shown for visualization purposes. language as follows: “If x is more similar to automobile p 1540 than to airplane p 1297 , but not similar enough to a further automobile instance p 8 and at the same time similar enough to a ship p 1220 , then it should be classified as a ship.” Also in this case, pivots are identified with a relevant variety in their semantic function within the tree. Some pivots provide broad reference exemplars that allow the model to distinguish between visually distinct categories, such as airplane and automobile, while others refine the decision by introducing more specific comparisons with instances that capture subtle similarities across classes. For example, the presence of two automobile pivots in different nodes highlights how different representative instances of the same class may play distinct roles: one supports a coarse discrimination at higher levels of the tree, while another helps verify whether the instance truly belongs to that class or should instead be associated with a visually related category such as ship. We also provide a qualitative example of PivotTrees using instances from a real- world healthcare case study [67]. In Figure 7, we present a ptc Z model trained on the oral training set. As in previous cases, a hypothetical instance x is evaluated by comparing it with a small number of exemplar instances in order to make a prediction. If x does not exhibit a similarity greater than or equal to 10.53 with the neoplastic instance p 252 , it is then compared with the traumatic instance p 33 . If x is sufficiently similar to p 33 , it is further compared with the aphthous instance p 435 . If it is more similar to p 435 , it is classified as aphthous; otherwise, alternative decision paths are followed. On the other hand, Figure 8 presents a trained pptc Z on the same dataset, offer- ing a different case-based solution to the same problem: an input instance x is first compared with two reference instances: a neoplastic case p 107 and an aphthous case p 175 . If x is more similar to p 107 , it follows the left branch, where it is further compared with p 175 again and with another neoplastic instance, p 287 . If x is found to be closer to p 287 , it is labeled as neoplastic; otherwise, additional comparisons are performed. Analogous reasoning is applied recursively along other branches of the tree. We report that, on the oral dataset, ptc Z achieves a weighted F1-score of 0.774 using 6 pivots, 31 Fig. 7: Example of ptc Z with maxdepth = 4 on oral. Only partial structure shown for visualization purposes. Fig. 8: Example of pptc Z with maxdepth = 4 on oral. Only partial structure shown for visualization purposes. while pptc Z achieves 0.772 using 11 pivots. In comparison, the CNN used to extract latent representations achieves a weighted F1-score of 0.851. This remark that, when interpretability is requested, it might be necessary to sacrifice the performance. Focusing on a different data type, we provide visualizations of trained PivotTrees on the gun dataset, which consists of univariate time-series. This dataset captures hand motion data from two actors performing two types of gestures: gun and no gun. In the gun class, actors draw a replica gun from a hip-mounted holster, point it at a target for approximately one second, and then return it. In the no gun, actors point with their index finger in a similar motion, but without drawing a weapon. The time-series represent the X-axis movement of the right-hand centroid during these actions. 32 Fig. 9: Example of ptc Z with maxdepth = 4 on gun. Only partial structure shown for visualization purposes. Figure 9 illustrates a trained ptc Z tree on the gun dataset. The reasoning follows a similar logic to the cases presented above. Given a test instance x, the model first compares it with the gun pivoy p 10 . This pivot exhibits the characteristic sharp peaks at the beginning and at the end of the time series, a pattern typically associated with gun-draw sequences and corresponding to the rapid arm movement occurring during the action. If the similarity score satisfies s(x,p 10 ) ≥ 0.77, x is then compared with a no gun prototype p 5 . In contrast to the previous pivot, p 5 shows a smoother and more regular temporal profile, lacking the pronounced spikes that characterize gun- related motions. If the similarity with p 5 exceeds the threshold 5.66, the instance is classified as no gun; otherwise, it is labeled as gun. Analogous reasoning is recursively applied along the other branches of the tree. If instead x is not sufficiently similar to p 10 , the model compares it with another gun pivot p 41 . This pivot still presents a clear peak structure, but with a slightly different shape and temporal alignment with respect to p 10 , suggesting that it captures a variant of the gun-draw motion occurring at a different phase or with a different intensity. Further down the tree, pivot p 24 represents another gun example characterized by a narrower and more localized peak, which helps refine the classification in more ambiguous cases. Conversely, the no gun pivot p 16 displays a broader and smoother oscillatory pattern, reflecting the more gradual arm movements typically observed in the negative class. Overall, these examples highlight that the pivots selected by the tree are not only limited in number, but also qualitatively heterogeneous. Each pivot captures a distinct and interpretable temporal pattern within the dataset, allowing the decision process to be understood as a sequence of comparisons with representative reference time series. 33 Fig. 10: Example of pptc Z with maxdepth = 4 on gun. Only partial structure shown for visualization purposes. On the other hand, Figure 10 illustrates a trained pptc Z tree on the same time-series dataset. Given an input time series x, the tree performs a sequence of comparisons against selected pivots. In particular, x is first compared with p 40 (a no gun example) and p 27 (a gun example). The pivot p 40 exhibits a relatively smooth temporal profile with a broader peak, which is typical of the gradual arm movements characterizing no gun sequences. In contrast, p 27 shows a sharper and more abrupt peak structure, corresponding to the rapid motion associated with gun-draw actions. If x is more similar to p 27 , it follows the right branch and is subsequently compared with p 19 (another no gun example). Interestingly, although p 19 belongs to the no gun class, it presents a noticeably different temporal structure compared to p 40 . In partic- ular, p 19 exhibits a wider and smoother peak with more gradual transitions than p 40 . This comparison, therefore, allows the model to further verify whether the input time series truly resembles the rapid motion associated with gun-draw actions or instead corresponds to a smoother motion pattern typical of the no gun class. If x is found to be more similar to p 19 , it is classified as no gun; otherwise, additional compar- isons further down the tree determine the final label. This step highlights how pivots belonging to the same class may still capture different characteristic patterns within the data, enabling the model to refine the decision through progressively more spe- cific similarity checks. The left subtree also reveals meaningful variability among the pivots. For example, the no gun pivot p 1 displays a smoother and slightly asymmetric peak, representing a typical negative example with gradual motion dynamics. Con- versely, the gun pivot p 3 presents a more pronounced and localized peak, highlighting the sudden movement that distinguishes gun-draw sequences. The pivots selected by the proximity-based tree again demonstrate qualitative diversity. Rather than relying on a single prototypical pattern, the model selects multiple representative time series capturing different variants of the motion patterns present in the dataset. As a result, the decision path can be interpreted as a sequence of comparisons with meaningful 34 reference examples, where each pivot contributes a specific temporal cue that helps discriminate between gun and no gun sequences. 5 Conclusion In this paper, we have presented PivotTree, a hierarchical and interpretable case- based model, inspired by decision trees [20], that selectively identifies descriptive and discriminative instances to tackle decision-making tasks. Unlike traditional decision trees, which learn feature-based rules, PivotTree rules are defined in terms of sim- ilarity to a set of reference instances named pivots. Rules can be univariate with one pivot per split, oblique with multiple pivots per split, and proximity-based consid- ering relative similarity to a small set of pivots determines the outcome. Moreover, PivotTree is a data-agnostic model, capable of being applied across various data modalities, simultaneously addressing both pivot selection and prediction tasks. We then leverage single PivotTree models to build a forest ensemble, Random- PivotForest, which we optimize for fast tree construction and high performance. We have compared PivotTree with other case-based models and tree models, both quantitatively and qualitatively, on a large benchmark of 45 datasets of different sizes, dimensionality, and modality. Quantitatively, as a prediction model, PivotTree shows state-of-the-art performance: it is as accurate as the most accurate models, while being simultaneously more interpretable. These results are particularly evident on non-relational data, where PivotTree outperforms all competitors. The same holds when considering pivot selection: interpretable models learned on the pivots selected by PivotTree are both highly interpretable, due to their small size, yet retain high performance. Our ensemble proposal, RandomPivotTree, while achieving good performances, also displays high variance: in some modalities, e.g., tabular, it performs on par with the competition, while in others, e.g., image, it is markedly better. Model complexity does not follow the same trend, with RandomPivotForest achieving high variance in complexity, i.e., number of trees. Our additional analysis of the impact of different distance measures reveals only minor performance variations among the PivotTree variants, with no statistically significant differences overall. Notably, the cosine dis- tance exhibits particularly promising behavior when applied to images, suggesting its potential suitability for this type of data. Future research could explore hybrid strate- gies for splitting, combining pivot-based splits and traditional univariate and oblique splits. Moreover, given the promising results highlighted in this paper by RandomPiv- otForest, we could further explore the ensemble potential of PivotTree as a weak learner for boosting, rather than bagging, models. Additionally, future research direc- tions include validating our approach in real-world decision-making scenarios involving human subjects to better assess its practical effectiveness. Declarations Funding. This work has been partially supported by the Italian Project Fondo Italiano per la Scienza FIS00001966 “MIMOSA”, by the European Community Hori- zon 2020 programme under the funding schemes ERC-2018-ADG G.A. 834756 “XAI”, 35 by the European Commission under the NextGeneration EU programme – National Recovery and Resilience Plan (Piano Nazionale di Ripresa e Resilienza, PNRR) Project: “SoBigData.it – Strengthening the Italian RI for Social Mining and Big Data Analytics” – Prot. IR0000013 – Av. n. 3264 del 28/12/2021, M4C2 - Investi- mento 1.3, Partenariato Esteso PE00000013 - “FAIR” - Future Artificial Intelligence Research” - Spoke 1 “Human-centered AI”, and “TANGO” that has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon Europe research and innovation program under G.A. 101120763. Conflict of interest/Competing interests. The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. Ethics approval and consent to participate. Not applicable. Consent for publication. The authors declare that they all provide consent for publication. Data availability. The open-source datasets adopted in this work are available at: tabular: ion, fire, yeast, magic, sonar, compas, house, german, spamb, norm, lrs, vert, iris, wine, diva No public release for privacy concerns. Dataset described in [68], breast, steel, ecoli, heloc, page. images: oral, mnist, cifar10, catsdogs, birds, pets, organa, blood, svhn. time-series: yoga, star, chlorine, kitchen, share, devices, gun, worms, ecg, wafer. text: medabs, vicuna, pted, tgpt, pol, liar. Code availability. The code is open and available here: https://github.com/ fismimosa/PivotTree. Author contribution. Alessio Cascione: Conceptualization, Methodology, Soft- ware, Validation, Investigation, Resources, Writing – Original Draft, Writing – Review & Editing, Visualization. Mattia Setzu: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investi- gation, Writing-Original Draft, Writing-Review & Editing, Visualization. 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Learn. 113(8), 5273–5330 (2024) 41 Table 10: Average Balanced Accuracy ± std. dev. for PivotTree classifiers and selectors combined with dt (limited to at most 20 pivots), baselines and competitors. Subscripts indicate the average number of pivots ± std. dev. Best results in bold, second best in italics. model tabular images time-series text all grule X .62±.28.42±.39.43±.24.50±.25.52±.30 irep X .70±.17.88±.10.52±.19.52±.21.67±.21 ripper X .72±.19.90±.09.56±.20.54±.21.70±.22 dt X .74±.18.67±.19.59±.21.57±.22.67±.20 odt X .75±.19.67±.20.59±.22.57±.21.67±.21 kms Z .67 13 ±.22 6 .66 10 ±.20 5 .56 12 ±.21 6 .55 13 ±.20 4 .63 12 ±.21 6 kmd Z .70 14 ±.19 4 .67 14 ±.20 6 .58 11 ±.22 6 .56 15 ±.20 3 .65 14 ±.20 5 ebl Z .73 18 ±.19 5 .69 15 ±.21 6 .57 17 ±.20 6 .59 19 ±.22 2 .67 17 ±.21 5 ptc Z .72 10 ±.20 4 .67 6 ±.20 4 .59 8 ±.21 4 .60 10 ±.21 4 .67 9 ±.21 4 pptc Z .72 12 ±.18 6 .70 10 ±.17 6 .56 12 ±.20 6 .59 11 ±.20 4 .66 12 ±.20 6 optc Z .68 15 ±.20 7 .65 9 ±.20 7 .57 11 ±.21 4 .54 14 ±.19 5 .63 13 ±.20 7 opptc Z .73 12 ±.18 5 .71 11 ±.19 6 .54 10 ±.20 6 .55 13 ±.20 6 .66 11 ±.20 6 pts Z .72 11 ±.18 5 .67 10 ±.21 5 .58 8 ±.21 4 .59 14 ±.21 3 .66 11 ±.20 5 ppts Z .72 14 ±.20 6 .67 11 ±.20 7 .59 15 ±.21 6 .60 15 ±.21 8 .66 14 ±.20 6 opts Z .69 13 ±.19 7 .65 13 ±.20 5 .57 10 ±.20 5 .54 12 ±.20 6 .64 12 ±.20 6 oppts Z .69 14 ±.21 7 .64 11 ±.21 7 .56 11 ±.20 6 .54 11 ±.20 6 .63 13 ±.21 6 A Appendix In this appendix, we present a more fine-grained analysis of the performance of all approaches discussed in the main paper. For completeness, we also include results in terms of Balanced Accuracy. Overall, the results for weighted F1-score and Balanced Accuracy are consistent, and the observations and comments reported in the main text similarly apply to this complementary evaluation metric. Moreover, we report results for each individual trained model in the unconstrained setting, i.e., without any limitation on the number of extracted pivots (the tables in the main paper consider at most 20 pivots). Finally, we provide detailed performance results, including weighted F1-score, Bal- anced Accuracy and the number of pivots or estimators for each dataset individually, for both standalone and ensemble models. 42 Table 11: Average Balanced Accuracy ± std. dev. for PivotTree selectors combined with knn (limited to at most 20 pivots), baselines and competitors. Subscripts indicate the average number of pivots± std. dev. Best results in bold, second best in italics. model tabular images time-series text all knn X .78±.17.93±.06.63±.27.61±.22.76±.21 kms Z .76 14 ±.17 6 .92 14 ±.07 5 .62 15 ±.23 5 .58 15 ±.22 3 .74 14 ±.21 5 kmd Z .77 16 ±.17 5 .92 14 ±.06 6 .62 11 ±.22 5 .59 19 ±.22 3 .74 15 ±.21 6 ebl Z .78 19 ±.17 4 .92 18 ±.07 4 .62 17 ±.23 6 .62 20 ±.23 2 .75 19 ±.20 5 pts Z .77 12 ±.17 5 .92 14 ±.06 5 .62 11 ±.24 6 .62 12 ±.24 2 .75 12 ±.21 5 ppts Z .77 13 ±.18 6 .92 14 ±.07 8 .63 15 ±.24 5 .61 16 ±.22 7 .74 14 ±.21 6 opts Z .76 14 ±.18 5 .92 15 ±.07 6 .61 13 ±.24 5 .60 17 ±.22 8 .74 14 ±.21 6 oppts Z .76 14 ±.18 5 .91 13 ±.08 6 .61 12 ±.23 7 .58 14 ±.22 4 .73 13 ±.21 5 kms P .68 16 ±.20 4 .91 15 ±.09 5 .54 14 ±.23 5 .52 19 ±.20 2 .67 16 ±.23 5 kmd P .68 16 ±.20 5 .90 13 ±.11 7 .57 17 ±.23 5 .51 13 ±.21 7 .68 15 ±.23 6 ebl P .74 20 ±.18 3 .92 18 ±.07 5 .59 20 ±.24 3 .58 20 ±.23 0 .72 19 ±.22 3 pts P .67 12 ±.18 4 .78 11 ±.22 6 .54 14 ±.22 4 .54 13 ±.20 6 .65 12 ±.22 5 ppts P .69 11 ±.20 7 .70 14 ±.25 8 .55 13 ±.26 6 .55 14 ±.21 8 .64 12 ±.23 7 opts P .69 13 ±.17 7 .78 15 ±.21 6 .52 14 ±.23 6 .53 15 ±.22 9 .65 14 ±.22 7 oppts P .71 13 ±.20 9 .66 10 ±.28 6 .55 13 ±.23 6 .52 10 ±.21 6 .64 12 ±.23 7 12345678910111213141516 ODT X 6.4889 DT X 6.5111 PTC Z 6.5667 EBL Z 6.6222 PPTC Z 6.9333 PTS Z 7.1556 PPTS Z 7.3222 OPPTC Z 7.7778 RIPPER X 8.6111 KMD Z 8.8222 IREP X 10.0000 OPTS Z 10.0444 OPPTS Z 10.2333 KMS Z 10.2444 OPTC Z 10.6111 GRULE X 12.0556 Balanced Accuracy DT 1234567891011 PTC Z 3.2889 PTS Z 5.0111 OPPTC Z 5.4333 PPTC Z 5.4556 OPTS Z 5.8444 KMS Z 5.9444 OPTC Z 6.0889 OPPTS Z 6.1222 KMD Z 6.7556 PPTS Z 7.0222 EBL Z 9.0333 Number of pivots DT 123456789101112131415 KNN X 4.4111 EBL Z 5.0667 PTS Z 5.9000 KMD Z 5.9889 KMS Z 6.4556 PPTS Z 6.6111 OPTS Z 6.9111 EBL P 7.2778 OPPTS Z 7.3778 KMD P 10.1444 KMS P 10.4556 OPPTS P 10.5333 PPTS P 10.6000 OPTS P 11.1222 PTS P 11.1444 Balanced Accuracy KNN 1234567891011121314 PTS Z 5.5111 PTS P 5.6444 OPPTS P 6.1000 PPTS P 6.1778 OPPTS Z 6.3889 OPTS P 6.8778 KMS Z 7.1333 PPTS Z 7.2000 KMD Z 7.2778 OPTS Z 7.5111 KMD P 8.0111 KMS P 8.3111 EBL Z 11.1000 EBL P 11.7556 Number of pivots KNN Fig. 11: Critical difference plot of model’s rank in terms of Balanced Accuracy and number of pivots against each other with Nemenyi test w.r.t all datasets, considering at most 20 pivots for each configuration. Models that are not significantly different at 95% significance level are connected. Best models on the right. 43 Table 12: Average weighted F1-score± std. dev. for PivotTree classifiers and selectors combined with dt in the unconstrained setting, baselines and competitors. Subscripts indicate the average number of pivots ± std. dev. Best results in bold, second best in italics. model tabular images time-series text all grule X .65± .29.38± .42.40± .32.45± .32.51± .34 irep X .76± .14.90± .09.55± .27.52± .25.71± .23 ripper X .76± .15.91± .08.61± .25.52± .25.72± .22 dt X .81± .14.70± .19.64± .26.58± .22.72± .21 odt X .81± .13.70± .19.64± .27.58± .22.72± .21 kms Z .76 30 ± .15 16 .69 19 ± .20 17 .61 26 ± .26 17 .56 41 ± .19 8 .68 29 ± .20 17 kmd Z .77 33 ± .15 16 .70 26 ± .20 16 .63 28 ± .27 15 .56 33 ± .20 15 .70 31 ± .20 15 ebl Z .80 236 ± .15 384 .69 183 ± .21 307 .62 298 ± .27 633 .59 193 ± .22 238 .71 234 ± .21 413 ptc Z .79 10 ± .14 4 .69 7 ± .20 4 .63 9 ± .27 4 .60 10 ± .21 4 .71 9 ± .21 4 pptc Z .80 13 ± .14 6 .73 10 ± .17 6 .62 12 ± .25 6 .58 11 ± .21 4 .71 12 ± .20 6 optc Z .76 15 ± .15 7 .68 10 ± .20 8 .63 12 ± .26 6 .55 21 ± .21 7 .68 14 ± .20 7 opptc Z .80 12 ± .13 5 .73 11 ± .21 6 .58 10 ± .28 6 .55 13 ± .20 6 .70 11 ± .22 6 pts Z .79 24 ± .14 22 .69 19 ± .21 15 .62 20 ± .28 20 .59 24 ± .22 13 .71 22 ± .21 19 ppts Z .78 23 ± .14 18 .69 23 ± .21 29 .64 23 ± .28 24 .59 31 ± .22 24 .70 24 ± .21 22 opts Z .78 31 ± .14 29 .67 26 ± .20 23 .63 28 ± .26 40 .56 46 ± .20 19 .70 31 ± .20 29 oppts Z .78 34 ± .16 28 .69 45 ± .22 49 .60 29 ± .27 34 .56 49 ± .20 38 .69 37 ± .21 35 Table 13: Average weighted F1-score± std. dev. for PivotTree classifiers and selectors combined with knn in the unconstrained setting, baselines and competitors. Subscripts indicate the average number of pivots ± std. dev. Best results in bold, second best in italics. model tabular images time-series text all knn X .83± .13.94± .05.68± .27.61± .22.79± .20 kms Z .80 13 ± .14 6 .93 13 ± .06 5 .68 14 ± .24 6 .58 15 ± .22 4 .77 14 ± .20 5 kmd Z .81 15 ± .14 5 .93 14 ± .06 6 .68 12 ± .24 5 .60 19 ± .22 3 .78 15 ± .19 5 ebl Z .83 207 ± .13 281 .93 53 ± .05 57 .68 322 ± .24 638 .63 150 ± .21 178 .79 194 ± .19 360 pts Z .82 12 ± .14 5 .93 15 ± .05 3 .69 12 ± .25 7 .62 13 ± .23 4 .79 13 ± .19 5 ppts Z .82 12 ± .14 6 .93 16 ± .05 7 .69 15 ± .25 5 .61 16 ± .22 7 .78 14 ± .20 6 opts Z .81 13 ± .14 5 .93 15 ± .07 7 .67 13 ± .25 5 .60 17 ± .22 8 .78 14 ± .20 6 oppts Z .81 15 ± .14 5 .92 14 ± .07 5 .67 12 ± .24 7 .58 14 ± .22 4 .77 14 ± .20 5 kms P .72 16 ± .20 5 .92 16 ± .07 5 .58 16 ± .28 5 .50 17 ± .20 6 .70 16 ± .24 5 kmd P .71 17 ± .20 4 .91 11 ± .12 6 .57 16 ± .29 5 .53 15 ± .20 5 .70 15 ± .24 5 ebl P .83 457 ± .14 691 .94 185 ± .06 272 .68 384 ± .26 603 .60 264 ± .24 260 .79 360 ± .20 560 pts P .71 12 ± .17 4 .80 10 ± .22 5 .56 13 ± .26 5 .54 13 ± .21 5 .67 12 ± .22 5 ppts P .72 10 ± .19 7 .65 14 ± .32 7 .57 12 ± .28 6 .50 13 ± .23 9 .64 12 ± .25 7 opts P .73 12 ± .18 6 .73 14 ± .25 6 .54 13 ± .28 5 .54 15 ± .23 9 .66 13 ± .24 6 oppts P .75 12 ± .18 9 .60 12 ± .35 7 .55 12 ± .29 7 .47 10 ± .29 5 .64 12 ± .27 7 44 Table 14: Average Balanced Accuracy ± std. dev. for PivotTree classifiers and selectors combined with dt in the unconstrained setting, baselines and competitors. Subscripts indicate the average number of pivots ± std. dev. Best results in bold, second best in italics. model tabular images time-series text all grule X .62±.28.42±.39.43±.24.50±.25.52±.30 irep X .70±.17.88±.10.52±.19.52±.21.67±.21 ripper X .72±.19.90±.09.56±.20.54±.21.70±.22 dt X .74±.18.67±.19.59±.21.57±.22.67±.20 odt X .75±.19.67±.20.59±.22.57±.21.67±.21 kms Z .70 26 ±.20 16 .67 17 ±.20 17 .56 25 ±.20 16 .56 39 ±.20 11 .64 26 ±.21 17 kmd Z .71 33 ±.19 15 .68 27 ±.20 16 .58 31 ±.21 17 .57 26 ±.20 16 .66 30 ±.20 16 ebl Z .74 240 ±.19 382 .67 161 ±.20 220 .59 307 ±.20 630 .60 226 ±.21 225 .67 237 ±.20 402 ptc Z .72 10 ±.20 4 .67 6 ±.20 4 .59 8 ±.21 4 .60 10 ±.21 4 .67 9 ±.21 4 pptc Z .72 12 ±.18 6 .70 10 ±.17 6 .56 12 ±.20 6 .59 11 ±.20 4 .66 12 ±.20 6 optc Z .68 15 ±.20 7 .65 10 ±.20 8 .57 12 ±.20 6 .56 21 ±.20 7 .63 14 ±.20 8 opptc Z .73 12 ±.18 5 .71 11 ±.19 6 .54 10 ±.20 6 .55 13 ±.20 6 .66 11 ±.20 6 pts Z .72 21 ±.18 16 .67 17 ±.21 14 .58 18 ±.21 21 .60 34 ±.21 19 .66 21 ±.20 18 ppts Z .72 19 ±.20 12 .67 25 ±.20 28 .59 23 ±.21 23 .60 18 ±.21 9 .66 21 ±.21 18 opts Z .72 35 ±.18 28 .65 25 ±.20 22 .59 29 ±.19 39 .57 46 ±.20 21 .65 33 ±.19 29 oppts Z .70 35 ±.21 29 .66 31 ±.21 36 .56 29 ±.20 35 .57 41 ±.20 25 .64 34 ±.21 31 Table 15: Average Balanced Accuracy ± std. dev. for PivotTree selectors combined with knn in the unconstrained setting, baselines and competitors. Subscripts indicate the average number of pivots ± std. dev. Best results in bold, second best in italics. model tabular images time-series text all knn X .78±.17.93±.06.63±.27.61±.22.76±.21 kms Z .76 14 ±.17 6 .92 14 ±.07 5 .62 15 ±.23 5 .58 15 ±.22 3 .74 14 ±.21 5 kmd Z .77 16 ±.17 5 .92 14 ±.06 6 .62 11 ±.22 5 .59 19 ±.22 3 .74 15 ±.21 6 ebl Z .78 204 ±.17 282 .93 50 ±.06 58 .62 354 ±.23 628 .63 160 ±.21 173 .76 201 ±.21 360 pts Z .77 12 ±.17 5 .92 14 ±.06 5 .62 11 ±.24 6 .62 12 ±.24 2 .75 12 ±.21 5 ppts Z .77 13 ±.18 6 .92 14 ±.07 8 .63 15 ±.24 5 .61 16 ±.22 7 .74 14 ±.20 6 opts Z .76 14 ±.18 5 .92 15 ±.07 6 .61 13 ±.24 5 .60 17 ±.22 8 .74 14 ±.21 6 oppts Z .76 14 ±.18 5 .91 13 ±.08 6 .61 12 ±.23 7 .58 14 ±.22 4 .73 13 ±.21 5 kms P .68 16 ±.20 4 .91 15 ±.09 5 .54 14 ±.23 5 .52 19 ±.20 2 .67 16 ±.23 5 kmd P .68 16 ±.20 5 .90 13 ±.11 7 .57 17 ±.23 5 .51 13 ±.21 7 .68 15 ±.23 6 ebl P .78 454 ±.17 692 .93 179 ±.07 274 .62 356 ±.25 614 .60 255 ±.23 269 .75 351 ±.21 564 pts P .67 12 ±.18 4 .78 11 ±.22 6 .54 14 ±.22 4 .54 13 ±.20 6 .65 12 ±.22 5 ppts P .69 11 ±.20 7 .70 14 ±.25 8 .55 13 ±.26 6 .55 14 ±.21 8 .64 12 ±.23 7 opts P .69 13 ±.17 7 .78 15 ±.21 6 .52 14 ±.23 6 .53 15 ±.22 9 .65 14 ±.22 7 oppts P .71 13 ±.20 9 .66 10 ±.28 6 .55 13 ±.23 6 .52 10 ±.21 6 .64 12 ±.27 7 45 Table 16 : Average weighted F1-score for PivotTree classifiers and selectors combined with dt , baselines and competitors. Sub- scripts indicate the average number of pivots ± std. dev. Best results in bold , second best in italics dataset grule X irep X ripper X dt X odt X kms Z kmd Z ebl Z ptc Z pptc Z optc Z opptc Z pts Z ppts Z opts Z oppts Z ion . 87 . 71 . 73 . 92 . 92 . 91 31 .97 11 . 96 54 . 94 8 . 87 12 . 88 13 . 81 12 . 93 17 . 94 19 . 91 28 . 96 22 fire 1.00 . 93 . 97 1.00 .99 . 85 26 . 89 33 . 88 10 . 88 5 . 89 13 . 85 4 . 85 7 . 86 4 . 82 7 . 88 4 . 90 30 yeast . 19 . 50 . 47 . 52 .56 . 53 40 . 49 48 . 49 230 . 52 14 . 53 16 . 46 24 .55 19 . 52 96 . 54 78 .55 123 . 47 66 magic . 76 . 79 . 75 .81 .80 . 77 34 . 76 49 .80 1139 .80 11 . 79 14 . 74 16 . 78 13 .80 42 . 77 29 . 78 25 . 77 44 sonar . 68 . 66 . 62 . 71 . 73 . 70 5 . 75 10 . 74 12 .79 8 . 76 13 . 70 16 .81 17 .79 10 . 75 9 . 75 36 . 78 30 compas . 52 . 47 . 47 .61 . 59 . 60 26 . 60 46 .61 156 . 58 10 . 59 6 . 57 6 .62 8 . 59 10 . 56 5 . 58 13 . 55 18 house . 80 . 76 . 75 .83 .83 . 80 48 . 79 50 . 81 782 .82 14 . 79 16 . 79 20 . 80 16 .82 47 . 80 19 . 80 58 . 80 44 german . 57 . 69 . 63 . 66 . 66 . 66 7 .70 7 . 64 259 . 62 3 . 63 2 . 59 7 . 65 15 . 62 10 . 62 12 . 61 4 . 63 23 spamb . 83 . 87 .90 .89 .89 . 80 38 . 80 21 .89 1319 . 88 15 . 86 17 . 74 19 . 85 13 .89 27 . 85 20 . 78 47 . 80 26 norm . 66 . 79 . 80 . 77 . 80 .97 2 . 96 50 . 96 50 . 96 12 .97 6 .97 2 .97 8 . 96 5 .97 15 .97 4 .97 4 lrs . 35 . 68 . 70 .79 .79 . 67 35 . 73 44 . 70 19 . 69 6 .77 15 . 69 13 . 69 10 . 71 17 . 66 44 . 69 8 . 70 73 vert . 78 . 75 . 78 . 79 .86 . 73 7 . 74 9 . 80 12 . 80 10 . 75 15 . 69 11 .83 9 . 77 17 . 77 17 . 71 20 . 61 9 iris . 61 . 91 .98 .98 1.00 . 96 26 . 91 20 .98 30 . 93 3 . 93 4 . 91 6 1.00 9 .98 10 . 96 6 . 96 11 .98 7 wine . 94 . 95 . 95 .98 . 97 .98 49 . 97 34 .98 59 .98 13 .99 11 . 97 20 .98 7 .98 26 .98 25 .98 45 . 97 22 diva . 78 . 81 .84 .85 .85 . 48 46 . 50 26 . 73 248 . 70 13 . 75 12 . 68 20 . 75 10 . 73 3 . 72 15 . 72 18 . 72 23 breast . 92 . 91 . 88 .96 .95 . 73 9 . 75 19 .96 21 .96 11 .95 4 . 92 18 .95 3 . 94 12 . 94 6 . 92 22 . 94 17 steel . 02 .66 .67 . 63 . 63 . 60 38 . 61 49 . 61 33 . 63 10 . 62 18 . 61 17 . 61 16 . 63 33 . 63 50 . 62 58 . 63 117 ecoli . 07 . 71 . 71 . 80 . 77 . 80 36 . 79 40 .86 22 . 79 11 .86 14 . 81 14 . 81 12 . 75 23 . 74 23 . 80 33 . 80 47 heloc .69 . 66 . 62 .70 .70 . 66 50 . 67 41 . 68 172 . 66 7 . 67 11 . 65 22 . 65 2 . 67 24 . 66 21 . 65 44 . 63 5 page . 92 .95 .96 .96 .96 .95 43 .95 40 .95 86 .95 12 .95 22 . 93 22 . 94 16 .95 38 .95 28 . 94 7 .95 44 yoga . 49 . 60 . 54 . 63 . 63 . 55 27 .68 24 . 62 20 .68 10 . 64 21 . 66 14 . 61 13 .68 29 .77 43 . 65 24 . 52 35 star . 12 . 80 . 87 . 88 .89 . 88 43 .89 48 .90 193 .90 7 . 83 7 . 87 12 . 79 2 .90 20 . 87 14 .89 18 . 84 9 chlorine . 09 . 10 . 12 . 11 . 11 . 10 39 . 13 9 . 08 52 . 08 5 .18 18 . 13 10 . 10 14 . 08 13 . 07 8 . 13 10 . 10 39 kitchen . 41 . 52 .60 .59 .59 . 40 41 . 40 47 . 35 66 . 37 12 . 51 6 . 36 16 . 24 8 . 37 13 . 39 8 . 36 3 . 43 11 share . 59 . 56 . 57 . 60 . 59 .61 26 .61 35 . 60 426 . 59 10 . 58 5 . 57 9 . 56 2 . 58 17 . 57 7 . 56 12 . 59 11 devices . 09 . 41 . 46 . 39 . 35 . 48 43 . 50 40 .56 2062 . 50 12 . 36 18 . 46 23 . 42 11 . 51 71 . 49 80 . 54 133 . 44 119 gun .79 . 34 . 64 .83 .83 . 65 6 . 75 21 . 67 4 . 72 3 . 66 6 . 75 2 . 68 3 . 75 9 . 72 6 . 71 7 . 76 9 worms . 54 . 32 . 42 . 57 . 57 . 52 2 . 46 21 . 54 10 .61 10 . 49 14 . 58 13 . 53 19 . 48 6 . 57 17 . 55 5 . 48 9 ecg . 02 . 86 . 87 . 89 . 89 .91 13 .92 23 .91 67 .91 10 .92 9 . 90 15 .91 11 .91 13 .91 26 . 90 48 .91 23 wafer . 90 . 97 . 97 . 96 . 96 . 96 12 . 97 7 .98 80 .98 3 .99 11 .98 6 .98 8 .98 3 .99 14 .98 15 .98 19 oral . 44 . 69 . 71 . 76 . 76 . 76 48 . 80 31 . 71 15 . 77 6 . 77 11 . 70 20 . 78 6 . 80 15 . 76 23 . 67 70 .81 37 MNIST . 02 .99 .99 . 44 . 44 . 54 8 . 54 2 . 44 10 . 44 7 . 44 8 . 44 8 . 44 10 . 44 22 . 42 3 . 44 8 . 39 3 cifar10 . 11 .94 .94 . 51 . 51 . 41 6 . 42 25 . 42 10 . 42 11 .64 14 . 42 13 . 41 20 . 42 43 . 42 81 . 42 45 . 42 80 catsdogs .95 .92 .95 .95 .95 .95 13 .95 21 .95 634 .95 1 .95 2 .95 2 .95 2 .95 4 .95 6 .95 6 .95 6 birds .88 .88 .88 .88 .88 .88 18 .88 44 . 87 33 . 87 5 .88 11 . 86 2 .88 9 .88 6 .89 8 .88 17 .88 12 pets .93 . 83 . 91 .93 .94 .93 13 .94 6 .94 85 .93 2 .93 2 1.00 4 .94 6 . 92 2 .93 2 .93 15 .93 21 organa . 03 .98 .98 . 55 . 55 . 53 11 . 55 43 . 55 798 . 55 4 . 67 18 . 54 7 .71 17 . 55 33 . 56 10 . 55 44 . 55 150 blood . 06 .90 .91 . 68 . 68 . 68 6 . 68 23 . 75 15 . 68 10 . 72 13 . 68 13 . 86 16 . 68 32 . 69 9 . 67 13 . 71 16 SVHN . 06 .94 .94 .56 .56 .56 47 .56 39 .56 41 .56 10 .56 11 .56 21 .56 8 .56 10 .56 58 .56 10 .56 76 medabs . 02 . 47 . 52 . 49 . 50 .58 48 . 54 28 . 57 118 .59 11 . 55 15 .58 22 . 54 12 .59 11 .58 51 . 57 43 . 57 114 vicuna . 60 . 62 . 61 . 63 . 63 . 55 39 . 59 47 .68 294 . 63 11 . 65 9 . 49 17 . 59 12 . 63 41 . 64 20 . 52 43 . 60 23 pTED . 65 . 66 . 66 .69 .69 . 60 50 . 62 40 . 65 62 . 67 5 . 66 10 . 62 22 . 54 15 . 67 38 .68 26 . 61 61 . 61 48 tgpt . 76 . 79 . 79 . 83 . 83 . 79 30 . 80 14 .85 633 .84 14 . 82 9 . 78 23 . 81 12 .84 14 . 83 4 . 82 21 . 78 6 pol . 59 . 49 . 48 . 63 . 63 . 62 36 . 63 20 . 61 17 .65 6 . 62 8 . 64 10 . 62 3 . 64 19 . 62 14 . 64 35 . 63 37 liar . 06 . 07 . 07 .19 .19 .20 42 .20 49 . 18 33 .20 11 .19 15 . 17 28 .19 20 .19 18 . 18 67 .20 73 .19 62 Avg. . 51 .71 .72 .72 .72 . 68 28 . 07 . 70 30 . 09 .71 233 . 13 .71 8.71 .71 11 . 38 . 68 13 . 82 . 70 10.69 .71 21 . 62 . 70 23 . 40 . 70 30 . 82 . 69 36 . 58 Std. . 34 . 23 . 22 . 21 . 21 . 20 16 . 14 . 20 14 . 86 . 21 412 . 94 . 21 3 . 69 . 20 5 . 08 . 20 7 . 00 . 22 5 . 16 . 21 18 . 35 . 21 21 . 47 . 20 28 . 74 . 21 34 . 63 Rank 10 . 3 9 . 4 12 . 4 6 . 2 6 . 2 9 . 6 7 . 5 8 . 0 8 . 1 7 . 8 6 . 5 6 . 9 2 . 6 7 . 0 3 . 9 10 . 6 4 . 8 8 . 3 3 . 8 6 . 9 6 . 3 8 . 0 6 . 2 9 . 0 7 . 7 8 . 8 8 . 1 46 Table 17: Average weighted F1-score for PivotTree classifiers and selectors combined with knn, base- lines and competitors. Subscripts indicate the average number of pivots ± std. dev. Best results in bold, second best in italics datasetknn X kms Z kmd Z ebl Z pts Z ppts Z opts Z oppts Z kms P kmd P ebl P pts P ppts P opts P oppts P ion.89.96 12 .99 14 .96 157 .96 8 .95 12 .95 13 .96 22 .88 20 .87 20 .96 80 .89 16 .79 15 .83 11 .85 20 fire.89.89 5 .91 15 .92 11 .84 6 .92 7 .93 9 .88 14 .90 9 .86 11 .92 38 .72 14 .81 4 .89 9 .80 2 yeast .57.52 11 .57 15 .58 153 .50 14 .50 9 .53 11 .55 19 .43 15 .48 20 .56 74 .35 14 .25 16 .23 24 .27 19 magic.83.80 19 .80 17 .79 902 .81 11 .80 9 .80 11 .80 16 .72 18 .65 8 .83 1542 .75 3 .76 3 .72 6 .77 11 sonar.94.84 10 .79 9 .92 50 .86 16 .73 9 .86 18 .81 14 .70 20 .75 18 .87 96 .55 14 .71 13 .67 15 .78 13 compas.59.58 14 .57 7 .59 724 .59 3 .59 6 .57 12 .59 11 .55 10 .47 8 .56 467 .56 15 .58 11 .59 13 .58 15 house.86.84 20 .83 15 .85 238 .84 14 .84 19 .81 16 .81 16 .61 13 .76 17 .85 2753 .78 10 .72 2 .78 20 .77 16 german.69.84 10 .79 9 .70 73 .67 10 .68 4 .63 7 .68 17 .74 7 .79 16 .68 170 .68 15 .66 4 .67 4 .65 3 spamb .89.89 13 .88 17 .89 186 .89 15 .89 20 .88 14 .85 13 .77 15 .79 20 .90 1319 .74 10 .61 19 .84 14 .81 7 norm.97.98 5 .97 20 .97 105 .97 12 .97 15 .97 6 .98 19 .94 11 .97 16 .98 272 .87 5 .97 4 .97 2 .94 2 lrs.80.72 13 .76 18 .78 24 .78 17 .78 21 .76 8 .72 18 .67 18 .72 19 .81 159 .70 17 .56 15 .77 20 .67 18 vert .79.83 10 .80 10 .76 112 .76 12 .80 7 .74 17 .78 13 .77 20 .76 15 .77 39 .57 12 .81 15 .76 11 .63 25 iris 1.00.89 2 .98 13 .98 21 .96 8 1.00 6 .96 8 1.00 11 .91 19 .86 18 1.00 69 .98 10 .83 10 .87 5 1.00 7 wine .99.98 7 .98 18 .99 155 .99 14 .99 15 .99 9 .99 9 .97 19 .97 19 .99 481 .96 10 .98 2 .94 9 .98 2 diva.80.60 20 .60 20 .81 169 .80 13 .79 15 .79 20 .78 10 .20 19 .19 20 .74 193 .68 13 .77 4 .67 11 .73 9 breast.95.82 10 .79 9 .95 46 .95 6 .95 8 .94 9 .96 10 .73 12 .76 16 .97 63 .85 10 .95 4 .87 9 .90 3 steel.73.68 19 .70 20 .71 34 .68 10 .71 19 .70 18 .68 16 .46 17 .48 17 .70 209 .45 15 .31 19 .44 18 .48 25 ecoli.85.81 11 .86 12 .90 18 .84 20 .82 14 .83 15 .83 22 .77 19 .79 16 .82 15 .66 14 .69 18 .63 15 .79 22 heloc.67.67 20 .67 19 .67 882 .67 10 .66 10 .67 21 .66 6 .66 15 .44 15 .67 882 .57 5 .65 2 .56 8 .65 2 page .96.96 19 .96 12 .96 65 .96 12 .96 14 .96 11 .95 12 .93 18 .93 15 .96 200 .81 8 .92 8 .91 7 .91 12 yoga .83.74 20 .76 10 .78 13 .78 23 .77 10 .75 17 .77 24 .56 18 .63 20 .81 146 .57 18 .57 10 .56 21 .65 24 star.86.91 13 .91 14 .89 112 .91 7 .91 14 .88 7 .89 9 .79 3 .73 19 .89 405 .79 8 .82 15 .79 6 .78 6 chlorine .15.24 12 .24 9 .24 115 .22 13 .23 17 .24 14 .24 12 .31 14 .22 7 .20 115 .38 5 .31 17 .23 9 .16 12 kitchen.36.43 13 .43 10 .37 138 .39 11 .39 15 .39 16 .41 11 .23 19 .21 13 .42 210 .26 18 .22 12 .28 19 .26 14 share .60.60 15 .60 2 .61 623 .60 3 .60 7 .60 20 .60 4 .56 16 .56 18 .61 392 .60 10 .60 7 .60 9 .60 4 devices.57.61 20 .60 19 .60 2062 .60 12 .57 18 .57 12 .54 11 .22 16 .19 20 .54 2062 .10 12 .14 3 .10 12 .14 4 gun .90.83 10 .80 10 .81 8 .85 5 .87 14 .88 10 .76 2 .78 17 .76 15 .88 37 .61 11 .73 12 .57 9 .71 12 worms.59.48 4 .57 12 .60 76 .63 9 .62 9 .53 9 .56 15 .50 14 .54 16 .54 76 .56 15 .48 17 .44 17 .48 19 ecg .93.92 7 .92 19 .92 23 .92 20 .91 19 .91 15 .92 15 .92 20 .92 18 .92 188 .80 20 .87 17 .86 15 .77 16 wafer 1.00.99 20 .99 12 .99 47 .99 13 .99 18 .99 9 .99 14 .98 20 .98 11 .99 203 .93 9 .97 6 .96 13 .98 8 oral.86.80 9 .82 12 .83 63 .84 15 .81 14 .77 19 .76 13 .75 19 .60 20 .81 27 .74 3 .66 11 .58 19 .57 13 MNIST .99.99 12 .99 9 .99 10 .99 15 .99 17 .99 15 .99 17 .99 10 .99 10 .99 10 .99 15 .99 17 .99 15 .99 17 cifar10.95.94 11 .94 17 .94 11 .93 15 .94 23 .94 13 .94 20 .95 10 .95 10 .95 11 .54 15 .38 23 .37 13 .24 20 catsdogs .94.94 7 .94 5 .94 21 .95 14 .94 6 .94 6 .94 6 .94 20 .95 5 .95 8 .94 4 .94 4 .95 6 .95 6 birds.88.88 18 .87 19 .89 194 .88 11 .88 4 .89 5 .88 15 .88 11 .88 9 .88 41 .85 6 .87 8 .82 5 .89 4 pets .93.94 8 .94 7 .94 32 .94 18 .94 18 .94 10 .94 12 .94 13 .94 3 .94 137 .91 7 .93 4 .43 10 .93 2 organa1.001.00 19 1.00 19 1.00 39 .99 19 .98 18 .99 21 .98 17 .99 19 .99 20 1.00 798 .96 13 .16 18 .97 17 .38 17 blood .94.93 16 .93 20 .93 60 .93 16 .93 18 .94 18 .92 16 .92 16 .92 8 .95 456 .91 13 .69 18 .91 16 .32 16 SVHN .95.95 13 .95 14 .95 41 .95 10 .95 18 .95 21 .94 8 .94 20 .95 10 .95 172 .36 10 .23 18 .55 21 .10 8 medabs.58.57 18 .57 16 .57 56 .55 11 .56 26 .52 9 .50 12 .44 6 .52 12 .56 56 .45 11 .45 25 .38 9 .14 8 vicuna .70.67 17 .69 20 .74 153 .69 12 .73 17 .70 29 .69 12 .55 19 .51 8 .68 538 .54 12 .38 11 .62 29 .59 12 pTED.56.54 13 .56 20 .64 17 .68 9 .67 12 .62 9 .59 12 .44 20 .55 11 .65 62 .66 9 .66 12 .61 9 .58 12 tgpt .92.87 14 .89 20 .89 499 .91 14 .86 8 .89 21 .88 16 .80 15 .81 15 .91 633 .79 19 .81 4 .83 21 .80 16 pol.68.63 10 .65 15 .67 95 .67 11 .65 17 .66 16 .61 12 .58 20 .59 20 .62 60 .63 8 .58 4 .61 6 .62 3 liar .24.20 18 .21 19 .25 75 .22 18 .20 15 .22 13 .21 20 .19 19 .18 20 .18 232 .18 18 .14 18 .16 13 .07 9 Avg..79.77 13.04 .78 14.18 .79 193.51 .79 12.33 .78 13.58 .78 13.49 .77 13.62 .70 15.73 .70 14.71 .79 359.91 .67 11.53 .64 11.09 .66 12.67 .64 11.44 Std. .20.20 4.98 .19 4.77 .19 359.83 .19 4.42 .20 5.36 .20 5.25 .20 4.69 .24 4.38 .24 4.81 .20 559.20 .22 4.41 .25 6.44 .24 5.94 .27 6.88 Rank 4.76.3 7.6 6.5 8.7 5.3 5.8 5.0 6.0 5.3 6.9 6.5 8.9 6.5 8.2 10.3 10.6 9.2 10.2 7.6 6.0 11.8 6.0 11.9 5.4 11.4 7.3 10.8 6.9 47 Table 18 : Average weighted F1-score for PivotTree classifiers and selectors combined with dt (max 20 pivots), baselines and competitors. Subscripts indicate the average number of pivots ± std. dev. Best results in bold , second best in italics dataset grule X irep X ripper X dt X odt X kms Z kmd Z ebl Z ptc Z pptc Z optc Z opptc Z pts Z ppts Z opts Z oppts Z ion . 87 . 71 . 73 . 92 . 92 . 89 9 .97 11 .98 20 . 94 8 . 87 12 . 88 13 . 81 12 . 93 17 . 94 19 . 88 11 . 96 22 fire 1.00 . 93 . 97 1.00 .99 . 92 10 . 86 17 . 88 10 . 88 5 . 89 13 . 85 4 . 85 7 . 86 4 . 82 7 . 88 4 . 90 21 yeast . 19 . 50 . 47 . 52 .56 . 51 13 . 50 7 . 47 20 . 52 14 . 53 16 . 46 24 .55 19 . 51 14 . 50 16 . 50 11 . 44 4 magic . 76 . 79 . 75 .81 .80 . 76 19 . 76 17 . 77 20 .80 11 . 79 14 . 74 16 . 78 13 .80 11 . 77 15 . 74 11 . 76 16 sonar . 68 . 66 . 62 . 71 . 73 . 70 5 . 75 10 . 74 12 .79 8 . 76 13 . 70 16 .81 17 .79 10 . 75 9 . 68 18 . 70 13 compas . 52 . 47 . 47 .61 . 59 . 57 11 . 60 17 . 60 20 . 58 10 . 59 6 . 57 6 .62 8 . 59 10 . 56 5 . 58 13 . 55 18 house . 80 . 76 . 75 .83 .83 . 79 18 . 78 17 . 80 20 .82 14 . 79 16 . 79 20 . 80 16 .82 14 . 80 19 . 80 18 . 78 14 german . 57 . 69 . 63 . 66 . 66 . 66 7 .70 7 . 64 20 . 62 3 . 63 2 . 59 7 . 65 15 . 62 10 . 62 12 . 61 4 . 66 15 spamb . 83 . 87 .90 .89 .89 . 81 19 . 79 17 . 81 20 . 88 15 . 86 17 . 74 19 . 85 13 . 86 13 . 85 20 . 77 10 . 78 15 norm . 66 . 79 . 80 . 77 . 80 .97 2 . 95 12 . 96 18 . 96 12 .97 6 .97 2 .97 8 . 96 5 .97 15 .97 4 .97 4 lrs . 35 . 68 . 70 .79 .79 . 68 18 . 69 16 . 70 19 . 69 6 .77 15 . 69 13 . 69 10 . 71 17 . 69 21 . 69 8 . 65 10 vert . 78 . 75 . 78 . 79 .86 . 73 7 . 74 9 . 80 12 . 80 10 . 75 15 . 69 11 .83 9 . 77 17 . 77 17 . 76 9 . 61 9 iris . 61 . 91 .98 .98 1.00 . 83 13 . 91 20 . 96 4 . 93 3 . 93 4 . 91 6 1.00 9 .98 10 . 96 6 . 96 11 .98 7 wine . 94 . 95 . 95 .98 . 97 .98 19 .98 3 .98 20 .98 13 .99 11 . 97 20 .98 7 .99 14 .98 15 . 97 20 . 97 15 diva . 78 . 81 .84 .85 .85 . 41 19 . 49 19 . 71 20 . 70 13 . 75 12 . 68 20 . 75 10 . 73 3 . 72 15 . 72 18 . 74 10 breast . 92 . 91 . 88 .96 .95 . 73 9 . 75 19 . 93 20 .96 11 .95 4 . 92 18 .95 3 . 94 12 . 94 6 . 92 22 . 94 17 steel . 02 .66 .67 . 63 . 63 . 57 18 . 59 15 . 61 20 . 63 10 . 62 18 . 61 17 . 61 16 . 63 10 . 62 19 . 59 18 . 61 25 ecoli . 07 . 71 . 71 . 80 . 77 . 77 19 . 74 18 . 84 20 . 79 11 .86 14 . 81 14 . 81 12 . 80 11 . 75 18 . 75 22 . 77 7 heloc .69 . 66 . 62 .70 .70 . 66 13 . 66 19 . 67 20 . 66 7 . 67 11 . 65 22 . 65 2 . 66 5 . 66 14 . 65 22 . 63 5 page . 92 .95 .96 .96 .96 .95 20 .95 14 .95 20 .95 12 .95 22 . 93 22 . 94 16 .95 12 .95 14 . 94 7 . 94 19 yoga . 49 . 60 . 54 . 63 . 63 . 66 20 .69 20 . 67 4 . 68 10 . 64 21 . 66 14 . 61 13 . 68 17 .77 23 . 67 9 . 63 24 star . 12 . 80 . 87 . 88 .89 . 87 18 .89 15 . 87 20 .90 7 . 83 7 . 87 12 . 79 2 .90 7 . 87 14 .89 18 . 84 9 chlorine . 09 . 10 . 12 . 11 . 11 . 09 8 . 13 9 . 09 20 . 08 5 .18 18 . 13 10 . 10 14 . 08 13 . 07 8 . 13 10 . 13 12 kitchen . 41 . 52 .60 .59 .59 . 42 16 . 43 7 . 34 20 . 37 12 . 51 6 . 36 16 . 24 8 . 37 13 . 39 8 . 36 3 . 43 11 share .59 . 56 . 57 .60 .59 . 56 11 . 56 15 . 57 20 .59 10 . 58 5 . 57 9 . 56 2 . 58 17 . 57 7 . 56 12 .59 11 devices . 09 . 41 . 46 . 39 . 35 . 47 13 . 49 18 .55 20 . 50 12 . 36 18 . 42 12 . 42 11 . 51 12 . 51 14 . 42 12 . 40 11 gun .79 . 34 . 64 .83 .83 . 65 6 . 76 11 . 67 4 . 72 3 . 66 6 . 75 2 . 68 3 . 75 9 . 72 6 . 71 7 . 76 9 worms . 54 . 32 . 42 . 57 . 57 . 52 2 . 57 18 . 54 10 .61 10 . 49 14 . 58 13 . 53 19 . 48 6 . 57 17 . 55 5 . 48 9 ecg . 01 . 86 . 87 . 89 . 89 .91 13 .92 19 . 90 20 .91 10 .92 9 . 90 15 .91 11 .91 13 .91 24 .91 22 .91 16 wafer . 90 . 97 . 97 . 96 . 96 . 96 12 . 97 7 .98 20 .98 3 .99 11 .98 6 .98 8 .98 3 .99 14 . 97 15 .98 7 oral . 44 . 69 . 71 . 76 . 76 . 79 16 . 72 18 .85 20 . 77 6 . 77 11 . 66 10 . 78 6 .80 15 . 75 14 . 65 14 . 72 9 MNIST . 02 .99 .99 . 44 . 44 . 54 8 . 54 2 . 44 10 . 44 7 . 44 8 . 44 8 . 44 10 . 44 15 . 42 3 . 44 8 . 39 3 cifar10 . 11 .94 .94 . 51 . 51 . 41 6 . 42 9 . 42 10 . 42 11 .64 14 . 42 13 . 41 20 . 42 11 . 42 23 . 42 13 . 41 20 catsdogs .95 .92 .95 .95 .95 .95 10 .95 14 .95 6 .95 1 .95 2 .95 2 .95 2 .95 4 .95 6 .95 6 .95 6 birds .88 .88 .88 .88 .88 .88 18 . 86 16 .88 20 . 87 5 .88 11 . 86 2 .88 9 .88 6 .89 8 .88 17 .88 12 pets .93 . 83 . 91 .93 .94 .93 13 .94 6 .94 20 .93 2 .93 2 .94 4 .94 6 . 92 2 .93 2 .93 15 .93 21 organa . 03 .98 .98 . 55 . 55 . 53 11 . 53 6 . 55 20 . 55 4 . 67 18 . 54 7 .71 17 . 55 4 . 56 10 . 55 21 . 46 17 blood . 06 .90 .91 . 68 . 68 . 68 6 . 67 12 . 75 15 . 68 10 . 72 13 . 68 13 . 86 16 . 68 10 . 69 9 . 67 13 . 71 16 SVHN . 06 .94 .94 .56 .56 .56 20 .56 17 .56 20 .56 10 .56 11 .56 21 .56 8 .56 10 .56 18 .56 10 . 46 8 medabs . 02 . 47 . 52 . 49 . 50 . 57 13 . 57 12 . 57 20 .59 11 . 55 15 . 50 9 . 54 12 .59 11 .58 26 . 53 9 . 46 12 vicuna . 60 . 62 . 61 . 63 . 63 . 55 10 . 61 15 .66 20 . 63 11 . 65 9 . 49 17 . 59 12 . 64 11 . 63 11 . 48 4 . 55 10 pTED . 65 . 66 . 66 .69 .69 . 51 19 . 57 19 . 64 19 . 67 5 . 66 10 . 62 22 . 54 15 . 66 5 .68 16 . 59 11 . 60 12 tgpt . 76 . 79 . 79 . 83 . 83 . 80 14 . 80 14 .85 20 .84 14 . 82 9 . 75 11 . 81 12 .84 14 . 83 4 . 82 21 . 78 6 pol . 59 . 49 . 48 . 63 . 63 . 61 13 . 63 20 . 61 17 .65 6 . 62 8 .64 10 . 62 3 .65 11 . 62 14 . 61 6 . 63 6 liar . 06 . 07 . 07 .19 .19 .19 18 .20 20 . 18 20 .20 11 .19 15 .20 13 .19 20 .19 18 .19 18 .19 13 .19 20 Avg. . 51 .71 .72 .72 .72 . 68 12 . 93 . 69 13 . 84 .71 17 . 11 .71 8.71 .71 11 . 38 . 68 12 . 47 . 70 10 . 69 .71 10.58 . 70 13 . 31 . 68 12 . 33 . 68 12 . 51 Std. . 34 . 23 . 22 . 21 . 21 . 21 5 . 18 . 20 5 . 02 . 21 5 . 13 . 21 3 . 69 . 20 5 . 08 . 20 6 . 12 . 22 5 . 16 . 21 4 . 39 . 21 6 . 05 . 21 5 . 71 . 22 5 . 69 Rank 10 . 2 9 . 2 12 . 3 5 . 9 5 . 9 10 . 0 6 . 4 8 . 5 6 . 8 7 . 4 9 . 1 6 . 4 3 . 3 6 . 7 5 . 4 10 . 2 6 . 1 8 . 1 5 . 1 6 . 6 4 . 9 7 . 6 6 . 6 10 . 1 5 . 9 10 . 0 5 . 9 48 Table 19: Average weighted F1-score for PivotTree classifiers and selectors combined with knn (max 20 pivots), baselines and competitors. Subscripts indicate the average number of pivots ± std. dev. Best results in bold, second best in italics datasetknn X kms Z kmd Z ebl Z pts Z ppts Z opts Z oppts Z kms P kmd P ebl P pts P ppts P opts P oppts P ion.89.96 12 .99 14 .95 20 .96 8 .95 12 .95 13 .96 22 .88 20 .87 20 .89 20 .89 16 .79 15 .83 11 .85 20 fire.89.89 5 .91 15 .92 11 .84 6 .92 7 .93 9 .88 14 .90 9 .86 11 .93 20 .72 14 .81 4 .89 9 .80 2 yeast .57.52 11 .57 15 .55 20 .50 14 .50 9 .53 11 .55 19 .43 15 .48 20 .58 20 .35 14 .25 16 .23 24 .27 19 magic.83.80 19 .80 17 .81 20 .81 11 .80 9 .80 11 .80 16 .72 18 .65 8 .77 20 .75 3 .76 3 .72 6 .77 11 sonar.94.84 10 .79 9 .76 20 .86 16 .73 9 .86 18 .81 14 .70 20 .75 18 .78 12 .55 14 .71 13 .67 15 .78 13 compas.59.58 14 .57 7 .59 20 .59 3 .59 6 .57 12 .59 11 .55 10 .47 8 .54 20 .56 15 .58 11 .59 13 .58 15 house.86.84 20 .83 15 .85 20 .84 14 .84 19 .81 16 .81 16 .61 13 .76 17 .82 20 .78 10 .72 2 .78 20 .77 16 german.69.84 10 .79 9 .67 20 .67 10 .68 4 .63 7 .68 17 .74 7 .79 16 .64 20 .68 15 .66 4 .67 4 .65 3 spamb .89.89 13 .88 17 .89 20 .89 15 .89 20 .88 14 .85 13 .77 15 .79 20 .88 20 .74 10 .61 19 .84 14 .81 7 norm.97.98 5 .97 20 .97 20 .97 12 .97 15 .97 6 .98 19 .94 11 .97 16 .97 20 .87 5 .97 4 .97 2 .94 2 lrs.80.72 13 .76 18 .75 16 .78 17 .78 21 .76 8 .72 18 .67 18 .72 19 .76 20 .70 17 .56 15 .77 20 .67 18 vert .79.83 10 .80 10 .78 20 .76 12 .80 7 .74 17 .78 13 .77 20 .76 15 .80 20 .57 12 .81 15 .76 11 .63 25 iris 1.00.89 2 .98 13 .98 18 .96 8 1.00 6 .96 8 1.00 11 .91 19 .86 18 .98 15 .98 10 .83 10 .87 5 1.00 7 wine .99.98 7 .98 18 .99 20 .99 14 .99 15 .99 9 .99 9 .97 19 .97 19 .98 20 .96 10 .98 2 .94 9 .98 2 diva.80.60 20 .60 20 .79 20 .80 13 .79 15 .79 20 .78 10 .20 19 .19 20 .70 20 .68 13 .77 4 .67 11 .73 9 breast.95.82 10 .79 9 .96 20 .95 6 .95 8 .94 9 .96 10 .73 12 .76 16 .96 20 .85 10 .95 4 .87 9 .90 3 steel.73.68 19 .70 20 .70 20 .68 10 .71 19 .70 18 .68 16 .46 17 .48 17 .57 20 .45 15 .31 19 .44 18 .48 25 ecoli.85.81 11 .86 12 .90 18 .84 20 .82 14 .83 15 .83 22 .77 19 .79 16 .82 15 .66 14 .69 18 .63 15 .79 22 heloc.67.67 20 .67 19 .66 20 .67 10 .66 10 .67 21 .66 6 .66 15 .44 15 .67 20 .57 5 .65 2 .56 8 .65 2 page .96.96 19 .96 12 .96 20 .96 12 .96 14 .96 11 .95 12 .93 18 .93 15 .95 20 .81 8 .92 8 .91 7 .91 12 yoga .83.74 20 .76 10 .78 13 .78 23 .77 10 .75 17 .77 24 .56 18 .63 20 .67 20 .57 18 .57 10 .56 21 .65 24 star.86.91 13 .91 14 .91 20 .91 7 .91 14 .88 7 .89 9 .79 3 .73 19 .82 20 .79 8 .82 15 .79 6 .78 6 chlorine .15.24 12 .24 9 .24 20 .22 13 .23 17 .24 14 .24 12 .31 14 .22 7 .09 20 .38 5 .31 17 .23 9 .16 12 kitchen.36.43 13 .43 10 .38 20 .39 11 .39 15 .39 16 .41 11 .23 19 .21 13 .43 20 .26 18 .22 12 .28 19 .26 14 share .60.60 15 .60 2 .61 20 .60 3 .60 7 .60 20 .60 4 .56 16 .56 18 .56 20 .60 10 .60 7 .60 9 .60 4 devices.57.61 20 .60 19 .59 20 .60 12 .57 18 .57 12 .54 11 .22 16 .19 20 .26 20 .10 12 .14 3 .10 12 .14 4 gun .90.83 10 .80 10 .81 8 .85 5 .87 14 .88 10 .76 2 .78 17 .76 15 .78 20 .61 11 .73 12 .57 9 .71 12 worms.59.48 4 .57 12 .59 5 .63 9 .62 9 .53 9 .56 15 .50 14 .54 16 .60 20 .56 15 .48 17 .44 17 .48 19 ecg .93.92 7 .92 19 .92 20 .92 20 .91 19 .91 15 .92 15 .92 20 .92 18 .93 20 .80 20 .87 17 .86 15 .77 16 wafer 1.00.99 20 .99 12 .99 20 .99 13 .99 18 .99 9 .99 14 .98 20 .98 11 .99 20 .93 9 .97 6 .96 13 .98 8 oral.86.80 9 .82 12 .77 20 .84 15 .81 14 .77 19 .76 13 .75 19 .60 20 .81 20 .74 3 .66 11 .58 19 .57 13 MNIST .99.99 12 .99 9 .99 10 .99 15 .99 17 .99 15 .99 17 .99 10 .99 10 .99 20 .99 15 .99 17 .99 15 .99 17 cifar10.95.94 11 .94 17 .94 20 .93 15 .94 23 .94 13 .94 20 .95 10 .95 10 .95 11 .54 15 .38 23 .37 13 .24 20 catsdogs .94.94 7 .94 5 .94 20 .95 14 .94 6 .94 6 .94 6 .94 20 .95 5 .95 8 .94 4 .94 4 .95 6 .95 6 birds.88.88 18 .87 19 .89 20 .88 11 .88 4 .89 5 .88 15 .88 11 .88 9 .86 20 .85 6 .87 8 .82 5 .89 4 pets .93.94 8 .94 7 .94 20 .94 18 .94 18 .94 10 .94 12 .94 13 .94 3 .94 20 .91 7 .93 4 .43 10 .93 2 organa1.001.00 19 1.00 19 1.00 20 .99 19 .98 18 .99 21 .98 17 .99 19 .99 20 .99 20 .96 13 .16 18 .97 17 .38 17 blood .94.93 16 .93 20 .95 20 .93 16 .93 18 .94 18 .92 16 .92 16 .92 8 .93 20 .91 13 .69 18 .91 16 .32 16 SVHN .95.95 13 .95 14 .95 20 .95 10 .95 18 .95 21 .94 8 .94 20 .95 10 .95 11 .36 10 .23 18 .55 21 .10 8 medabs.58.57 18 .57 16 .56 20 .55 11 .56 26 .52 9 .50 12 .44 6 .52 12 .56 20 .45 11 .45 25 .38 9 .14 8 vicuna .70.67 17 .69 20 .75 20 .69 12 .73 17 .70 29 .69 12 .55 19 .51 8 .62 20 .54 12 .38 11 .62 29 .59 12 pTED.56.54 13 .56 20 .64 17 .68 9 .67 12 .62 9 .59 12 .44 20 .55 11 .62 9 .66 9 .66 12 .61 9 .58 12 tgpt .92.87 14 .89 20 .90 20 .91 14 .86 8 .89 21 .88 16 .80 15 .81 15 .88 20 .79 19 .81 4 .83 21 .80 16 pol.68.63 10 .65 15 .65 20 .67 11 .65 17 .66 16 .61 12 .58 20 .59 20 .62 20 .63 8 .58 4 .61 6 .62 3 liar .24.20 18 .21 19 .22 20 .22 18 .20 15 .22 13 .21 20 .19 19 .18 20 .20 20 .18 18 .14 18 .16 13 .07 9 Avg..79.77 13.04 .78 14.18 .79 18.58 .79 12.33 .78 13.58 .78 13.49 .77 13.62 .70 15.73 .70 14.71 .76 18.69 .67 11.53 .64 11.09 .66 12.67 .64 11.44 Std. .20.20 4.98 .19 4.77 .20 3.51 .19 4.42 .20 5.36 .20 5.25 .20 4.69 .24 4.38 .24 4.81 .22 3.25 .22 4.41 .25 6.44 .24 5.94 .27 6.88 Rank 4.36.4 6.6 5.8 7.3 4.8 11.3 5.1 6.1 5.7 7.1 6.2 7.1 6.9 7.3 10.7 8.6 10.6 8.2 7.1 11.6 11.6 5.5 11.4 5.6 11.6 6.3 11.3 5.7 49 12345678910111213141516 ODT X 5.9444 DT X 5.9556 PTC Z 6.4889 PTS Z 6.6556 PPTC Z 6.7556 EBL Z 7.4556 PPTS Z 7.6667 OPPTC Z 8.1222 KMD Z 8.5667 RIPPER X 9.2889 KMS Z 10.0111 OPPTS Z 10.0556 OPTS Z 10.1556 IREP X 10.2111 OPTC Z 10.2778 GRULE X 12.3889 F1-score DT 1234567891011 PTC Z 3.3667 PTS Z 4.9778 OPPTC Z 5.1000 PPTC Z 5.4667 OPTS Z 5.9333 OPPTS Z 5.9778 OPTC Z 6.1222 KMS Z 6.4444 PPTS Z 6.6222 KMD Z 6.8222 EBL Z 9.1667 Number of pivots DT 123456789101112131415 KNN X 4.3556 EBL Z 4.8556 PTS Z 5.1778 PPTS Z 5.7000 KMD Z 5.8667 OPTS Z 6.2889 KMS Z 6.4000 OPPTS Z 6.9111 EBL P 7.1000 KMD P 10.6111 KMS P 10.7222 OPPTS P 11.3222 PPTS P 11.4333 OPTS P 11.6111 PTS P 11.6444 F1-score KNN 1234567891011121314 PTS P 5.5444 PPTS P 5.6222 OPPTS P 5.7444 PTS Z 6.1444 OPTS P 6.3889 KMS Z 6.6333 PPTS Z 7.1222 OPTS Z 7.1333 OPPTS Z 7.3000 KMD Z 7.3778 KMD P 8.2333 KMS P 8.6889 EBL Z 11.3889 EBL P 11.6778 Number of pivots KNN Fig. 12: Critical difference plot of model’s rank in terms of weighted F1-score and number of pivots against each other with Nemenyi test w.r.t all datasets in the con- strained setting. Models that are not significantly different at 95% significance level are connected. Best models on the right. 123456789101112131415161718192021 XGB 3.3000 LGBM 3.6111 CATB 3.9222 RPT 7.6444 RODT 7.9222 RDT 8.0444 RPPT 8.8778 ROPPT 9.3667 ROPT 9.8889 RODT S 9.9333 ROPPT S 10.5222 RPPT S 10.7000 RDT S 10.9111 ROPT S 12.0667 RPT S 12.1778 RPT B 16.3333 RDT B 16.7778 RODT B 17.1222 RPPT B 17.1333 ROPT B 17.1778 ROPPT B 17.5667 Balanced Accuracy (no sampling) 123456789101112131415161718192021 LGBM 3.0111 CATB 3.2778 XGB 4.2444 RPPT 8.3889 RPT 8.4667 ROPPT 9.0000 ROPPT S 9.5111 ROPT 9.6000 RPPT S 9.6778 RDT 9.7333 RODT S 10.0000 RODT 10.0667 RDT S 10.7111 ROPT S 11.1889 RPT S 12.1444 RPT B 16.3556 ROPT B 16.3889 RODT B 17.0778 RDT B 17.3444 ROPPT B 17.3778 RPPT B 17.4333 Balanced Accuracy (10% sampling) Fig. 13: Critical difference plots of ensemble models’ rankings in terms of Balanced Accuracy, evaluated using the Nemenyi test across all datasets. Models that are not significantly different at the 95% significance level are connected. The best models are positioned on the right. 50 Table 20 : Average Balanced Accuracy for PivotTree classifiers and selectors combined with dt , baselines and competitors. Subscripts indicate the average number of pivots ± std. dev. Best results in bold , second best in italics dataset grule X irep X ripper X dt X odt X kms Z kmd Z ebl Z ptc Z pptc Z optc Z opptc Z pts Z ppts Z opts Z oppts Z ion . 83 . 66 . 73 . 92 . 92 . 92 31 . 97 13 . 96 54 . 93 8 . 83 12 . 86 13 . 76 12 . 85 16 . 96 19 . 90 28 . 96 22 fire 1.00 . 92 .98 1.00 .98 . 85 26 . 90 26 . 87 10 . 87 5 . 87 13 . 85 4 . 83 7 . 86 4 . 83 7 . 86 4 . 90 30 yeast . 15 . 40 . 37 . 42 .44 . 19 3 . 31 39 . 33 230 . 36 14 . 43 16 . 29 24 .49 19 . 36 67 . 33 16 . 36 123 . 33 87 magic . 71 . 74 . 74 .77 .76 . 67 32 . 71 49 .77 1139 .77 11 . 75 14 . 69 16 . 73 5 .77 42 . 74 29 . 73 38 . 74 44 sonar . 69 . 66 . 62 . 72 . 74 . 70 5 . 75 10 . 78 12 .80 8 . 75 13 . 70 16 .81 17 .80 10 . 75 9 . 76 36 . 78 30 compas . 47 . 42 . 42 . 53 . 51 . 48 11 .55 41 .54 156 . 52 3 . 50 6 . 48 6 .54 8 . 53 10 . 49 5 . 51 13 . 47 68 house . 74 . 71 . 72 .79 . 77 . 73 27 . 73 50 . 74 782 . 70 6 .78 6 . 73 20 . 76 16 . 73 21 . 74 19 . 75 58 . 74 44 german . 50 . 61 . 54 . 58 . 58 . 66 7 .77 15 . 55 259 . 53 3 . 54 2 . 51 7 . 56 15 . 53 10 . 51 18 . 50 17 . 55 23 spamb . 82 . 87 .89 .88 .88 . 85 39 . 78 49 .88 1319 . 87 15 . 86 17 . 73 19 . 85 13 .88 27 . 84 20 . 77 47 . 79 26 norm . 68 . 79 . 80 . 77 . 80 .97 2 . 96 50 . 96 50 . 96 12 .97 6 .97 2 .97 8 .97 3 .97 15 .97 4 .97 4 lrs . 12 . 35 . 34 . 42 . 42 . 47 35 .52 44 . 49 15 . 37 6 . 41 15 . 35 13 . 37 18 . 49 17 . 34 44 . 47 33 . 40 23 vert . 69 . 78 .83 . 73 .86 . 73 7 . 75 13 . 74 12 . 79 10 . 68 15 . 56 5 . 76 9 . 70 17 . 70 17 . 73 20 . 46 9 iris . 67 . 90 .97 .97 1.00 . 95 26 . 90 20 . 95 4 . 92 3 . 92 4 . 90 6 1.00 9 . 92 7 . 95 6 . 92 6 .97 7 wine . 89 . 91 . 94 .97 . 96 .98 49 . 96 32 .97 59 .98 13 .98 11 . 96 20 .98 7 .98 24 .97 15 . 96 45 . 96 22 diva . 75 .79 .80 .80 .80 . 44 39 . 43 26 . 60 248 . 57 13 . 61 12 . 54 20 . 63 10 . 60 3 . 59 15 . 56 8 . 58 23 breast . 90 . 89 . 88 .96 .95 . 73 9 . 75 19 . 94 46 .96 11 .96 4 . 92 18 .96 5 . 92 12 . 92 6 . 92 22 . 93 17 steel . 14 .63 .67 . 55 . 55 . 50 44 . 49 30 . 51 73 . 53 10 . 51 18 . 50 17 . 51 16 . 53 33 . 52 50 . 51 58 . 53 117 ecoli . 14 . 57 . 62 . 55 . 51 . 66 27 . 49 43 .74 22 . 58 11 . 60 14 . 68 14 . 71 12 . 57 23 . 66 15 . 68 33 . 57 47 heloc .69 . 66 . 65 .70 .69 . 66 50 . 67 41 . 68 172 . 66 7 . 67 11 . 65 22 . 65 2 . 67 24 . 66 21 . 65 44 . 63 5 page . 79 . 83 . 85 .87 . 85 . 79 37 .87 50 . 83 123 . 83 12 . 85 22 . 74 22 . 81 16 . 82 38 .87 28 . 80 61 . 80 44 yoga . 56 . 61 . 58 . 63 . 63 . 59 27 . 68 24 . 66 20 . 67 10 . 64 21 . 67 14 . 61 13 . 68 29 .77 43 . 65 24 . 57 35 star . 33 . 67 . 80 .86 .86 . 78 36 . 79 44 .85 193 . 83 7 . 71 7 . 76 12 . 66 2 . 83 20 . 76 14 . 81 18 . 72 9 chlorine .30 . 24 . 27 . 25 . 25 . 26 39 . 26 9 . 25 52 . 27 5 .31 18 . 25 10 . 28 14 . 27 13 . 26 8 . 27 10 . 26 39 kitchen . 49 . 55 .60 .62 .62 . 42 41 . 42 47 . 42 149 . 39 3 . 53 6 . 40 9 . 36 8 . 41 9 . 40 15 . 47 3 . 42 11 share . 52 . 50 . 50 . 52 . 51 .53 26 .53 35 . 51 426 . 51 10 . 51 5 . 50 9 . 50 2 . 50 3 . 48 9 . 50 26 . 50 4 devices . 14 . 33 . 36 . 33 . 30 . 40 43 . 42 50 .52 2062 . 44 12 . 29 18 . 40 23 . 35 11 . 44 71 . 42 80 .48 133 . 36 119 gun .79 . 50 . 65 .83 .83 . 65 6 . 75 21 . 67 4 . 73 3 . 68 6 . 75 2 . 70 3 . 75 8 . 75 7 . 71 7 . 76 9 worms . 54 . 45 . 45 . 55 . 55 . 50 14 . 51 21 . 59 10 .60 10 . 48 14 . 57 13 . 52 19 . 47 6 . 55 17 . 54 5 . 56 9 ecg . 01 . 39 . 43 . 49 . 49 . 49 13 . 50 48 . 49 67 .51 10 . 49 9 . 47 15 . 50 11 .51 13 .52 24 .51 48 . 48 43 wafer . 64 . 92 . 94 . 86 . 86 .96 2 .97 3 . 94 80 . 94 3 .97 11 . 92 6 . 95 8 . 94 3 . 95 12 . 91 13 . 92 8 oral . 56 . 68 . 71 . 77 . 77 . 77 48 . 80 31 . 72 15 . 77 6 . 78 11 . 70 20 . 78 6 . 80 15 . 77 23 . 67 70 .81 37 MNIST . 10 .99 .99 . 50 . 50 . 59 8 . 62 2 . 50 408 . 50 7 . 50 8 . 50 8 . 50 10 . 50 22 . 47 3 . 50 8 . 48 3 cifar10 . 19 .93 .94 . 58 . 58 . 48 6 . 49 37 . 49 10 . 48 11 . 68 14 . 49 13 . 48 20 . 48 43 . 48 81 . 48 45 . 49 103 catsdogs .95 .92 .95 .95 .95 .95 13 .95 14 .95 634 .95 1 .95 2 .95 2 .95 2 .95 4 .95 4 .95 6 .95 6 birds . 81 .83 .84 . 80 . 81 . 82 43 . 81 40 . 82 194 .83 3 . 78 5 . 77 2 . 82 9 . 81 6 .83 25 . 81 17 . 76 5 pets . 92 . 78 . 91 .93 .94 .94 13 .94 6 .94 104 .93 2 .94 2 .94 4 .93 6 .93 4 .94 4 .94 15 .93 21 organa . 01 .97 .98 . 45 . 45 . 44 6 . 45 43 . 45 28 . 45 4 . 56 18 . 45 7 . 62 17 . 45 15 . 49 10 . 45 35 . 41 10 blood . 12 .88 .88 . 60 . 60 . 60 5 . 59 23 . 70 15 . 60 10 . 64 13 . 59 13 .81 16 . 60 32 . 62 9 . 58 13 . 65 16 SVHN . 10 .93 .94 . 47 . 47 . 47 8 . 48 39 . 48 41 . 48 10 . 48 11 . 48 21 . 48 8 . 48 10 . 48 58 . 48 10 . 48 76 medabs . 20 . 41 . 50 . 46 . 50 . 62 26 . 60 12 . 61 118 . 61 11 . 60 15 . 60 22 . 58 12 .65 24 .64 26 . 62 36 . 62 75 vicuna . 63 . 61 . 59 . 62 . 62 . 55 39 . 58 47 .66 294 . 61 11 . 64 9 . 53 17 . 58 12 . 62 41 . 63 20 . 55 43 . 59 23 pTED .64 . 63 . 63 .66 .66 . 54 48 . 58 43 . 63 62 .66 5 . 63 10 . 59 22 . 52 15 .66 38 .66 26 . 59 61 . 59 48 tgpt . 77 . 79 . 80 . 83 . 83 . 80 26 . 80 14 .85 633 .84 14 . 81 9 . 78 23 . 81 12 .84 14 . 83 4 . 82 21 . 78 6 pol . 60 . 54 . 53 . 63 . 63 .66 50 . 63 16 . 61 17 .65 6 . 63 8 .65 10 . 63 3 . 64 19 . 63 14 . 64 35 . 63 37 liar . 17 . 17 . 17 . 19 . 19 . 19 42 .20 20 .21 232 .20 11 .20 15 . 19 28 . 19 20 .20 64 .20 18 .20 78 . 19 53 Avg. . 52 .67 .70 .67 .67 . 64 25 . 20 . 66 29 . 98 .67 236 . 73 .67 8.13 . 66 11 . 02 . 63 13 . 53 . 66 10.73 . 66 20 . 76 . 66 20 . 62 . 65 32 . 84 . 64 33 . 27 Std. . 30 . 21 . 22 . 20 . 21 . 21 16 . 06 . 20 15 . 13 . 20 401 . 15 . 21 3 . 80 . 20 5 . 17 . 20 7 . 13 . 20 5 . 28 . 20 17 . 03 . 21 17 . 80 . 19 28 . 58 . 21 30 . 18 Rank 10 . 1 8 . 7 12 . 2 6 . 9 6 . 9 9 . 4 7 . 1 8 . 1 8 . 3 7 . 0 6 . 5 6 . 9 2 . 5 7 . 3 4 . 0 10 . 8 4 . 7 8 . 1 4 . 0 7 . 0 6 . 4 7 . 7 6 . 1 8 . 8 8 . 2 9 . 4 7 . 9 51 Table 21 : Average Balanced Accuracy for PivotTree classifiers and selectors combined with dt (max 20 pivots), baselines and competitors. Subscripts indicate the average number of pivots ± std. dev. Best results in bold , second best in italics dataset grule X irep X ripper X dt X odt X kms Z kmd Z ebl Z ptc Z pptc Z optc Z opptc Z pts Z ppts Z opts Z oppts Z ion . 83 . 66 . 73 . 92 . 92 . 88 9 . 97 13 .99 20 . 93 8 . 83 12 . 86 13 . 76 12 . 85 16 . 96 19 . 87 11 . 96 22 fire 1.00 . 92 .98 1.00 .98 . 92 10 . 85 17 . 87 10 . 87 5 . 87 13 . 85 4 . 83 7 . 86 4 . 83 7 . 86 4 . 90 21 yeast . 15 . 40 . 37 . 42 .44 . 19 3 . 31 11 . 33 20 . 36 14 . 43 16 . 29 24 .49 19 . 36 14 . 33 16 . 27 4 . 35 4 magic . 71 . 74 . 74 .77 .76 . 67 20 . 73 10 .76 20 .77 11 . 75 14 . 69 16 . 73 5 .77 11 . 73 15 . 70 11 . 73 16 sonar . 69 . 66 . 62 . 72 . 74 . 66 5 . 75 10 . 78 12 .80 8 . 75 13 . 70 16 .81 17 .80 10 . 75 9 . 70 18 . 57 14 compas . 47 . 42 . 42 . 53 . 51 . 48 11 .54 17 . 50 20 . 52 3 . 50 6 . 48 6 .54 8 . 53 10 . 49 5 . 51 13 . 50 18 house . 74 . 71 . 72 .79 . 77 . 74 18 . 71 17 . 76 20 . 70 6 .78 6 . 73 20 . 76 16 . 73 10 . 74 19 . 76 20 . 71 14 german . 50 . 61 . 54 . 58 . 58 . 66 7 .74 10 . 55 20 . 53 3 . 54 2 . 51 7 . 56 15 . 53 10 . 53 12 . 53 4 . 57 15 spamb . 82 . 87 .89 .88 .88 . 79 19 . 78 16 . 79 20 . 87 15 . 86 17 . 73 19 . 85 13 . 87 15 . 84 20 . 75 10 . 76 15 norm . 68 . 79 . 80 . 77 . 80 .97 2 . 95 12 . 96 20 . 96 12 .97 6 .97 2 .97 8 . 96 5 .97 15 .97 4 .97 4 lrs . 12 . 35 . 34 . 42 . 42 . 36 18 . 48 7 .49 15 . 37 6 . 41 15 . 35 13 . 37 18 .49 17 . 38 21 . 46 20 . 35 18 vert . 69 . 78 .83 . 73 .86 . 73 7 . 75 13 . 74 12 . 79 10 . 68 15 . 56 5 . 76 9 . 70 17 . 70 17 . 70 9 . 46 9 iris . 67 . 90 .97 .97 1.00 . 82 13 . 90 20 . 95 4 . 92 3 . 92 4 . 90 6 1.00 9 . 92 7 . 95 6 . 92 6 .97 7 wine . 89 . 91 . 94 .97 . 96 .97 19 . 95 11 .98 20 .98 13 .98 11 . 96 20 .98 7 .98 14 .97 15 . 95 20 . 96 15 diva . 75 .79 .80 .80 .80 . 32 19 . 41 19 . 58 20 . 57 13 . 61 12 . 54 20 . 63 10 . 60 3 . 59 15 . 56 8 . 61 8 breast . 90 . 89 . 88 .96 .95 . 73 9 . 77 14 . 92 20 .96 11 .96 4 . 92 18 .96 5 . 92 12 . 92 6 . 92 22 . 93 17 steel . 14 .63 .67 . 55 . 55 . 47 16 . 47 15 . 51 20 . 53 10 . 51 18 . 50 17 . 51 16 . 53 10 . 51 19 . 49 18 . 50 25 ecoli . 14 . 57 . 62 . 55 . 51 . 51 12 . 46 18 . 70 20 . 58 11 . 60 14 . 68 14 . 71 12 . 59 11 . 66 15 . 48 22 . 62 7 heloc .69 . 66 . 65 .70 .69 . 66 13 . 66 12 . 67 20 . 66 7 . 67 11 . 65 22 . 65 2 . 66 5 . 66 10 . 65 22 . 63 5 page . 79 . 83 . 85 .87 . 85 . 85 20 . 84 14 .86 20 . 83 12 . 85 22 . 74 22 . 81 16 . 83 12 .87 14 . 79 7 . 79 19 yoga . 56 . 61 . 58 . 63 . 63 . 66 20 . 69 20 .72 12 . 67 10 . 64 21 . 67 14 . 61 13 . 68 10 .77 23 . 66 9 . 62 24 star . 33 . 67 . 80 .86 .86 . 77 18 . 81 15 . 78 20 . 83 7 . 71 7 . 76 12 . 66 2 . 83 7 . 76 14 . 81 18 . 72 9 chlorine .30 . 24 . 27 . 25 . 25 . 25 8 . 26 9 . 26 20 . 27 5 .31 18 . 25 10 . 28 14 . 27 5 . 26 8 . 27 10 . 26 12 kitchen . 49 . 55 .60 .62 .62 . 39 12 . 38 3 . 35 20 . 39 3 . 53 6 . 40 9 . 36 8 . 41 9 . 40 15 . 47 3 . 42 11 share .52 . 50 . 50 .52 .51 . 50 11 . 50 15 . 50 20 .51 10 .51 5 . 50 9 . 50 2 . 50 3 . 48 9 . 50 12 . 50 4 devices . 14 . 33 . 36 . 33 . 30 . 41 13 . 40 10 .45 20 . 44 12 . 29 18 . 37 12 . 35 11 . 44 12 .45 14 . 36 5 . 35 11 gun .79 . 50 . 65 .83 .83 . 65 6 . 76 11 . 67 4 . 73 3 . 68 6 . 75 2 . 70 3 . 75 8 . 75 7 . 71 7 . 76 9 worms . 54 . 45 . 45 . 55 . 55 . 50 14 . 58 6 .59 10 .60 10 . 48 14 . 57 13 . 52 19 . 47 6 . 55 17 . 54 5 . 56 9 ecg . 01 . 39 . 43 . 49 . 49 . 49 13 . 46 17 .51 20 .51 10 . 49 9 . 47 15 . 50 11 .51 13 .52 24 . 48 10 . 49 11 wafer . 64 . 92 . 94 . 86 . 86 .96 2 .97 3 . 92 20 . 94 3 .97 11 . 92 6 . 95 8 . 94 3 . 95 12 . 91 13 . 92 7 oral . 56 . 68 . 71 . 77 . 77 . 69 14 . 72 18 .86 20 . 77 6 . 78 11 . 67 10 . 78 6 .80 15 . 75 14 . 66 14 . 72 9 MNIST . 10 .99 .99 . 50 . 50 . 59 8 . 62 2 . 50 10 . 50 7 . 50 8 . 50 8 . 50 10 . 50 15 . 47 3 . 50 8 . 48 3 cifar10 . 19 .93 .94 . 58 . 58 . 48 6 . 48 14 . 49 10 . 48 11 . 68 14 . 49 13 . 48 20 . 48 11 . 48 23 . 48 13 . 48 20 catsdogs .95 .92 .95 .95 .95 .95 10 .95 14 .95 6 .95 1 .95 2 .95 2 .95 2 .95 4 .95 4 .95 6 .95 6 birds . 81 .83 .84 . 80 . 81 . 80 18 . 81 16 .83 20 .83 3 . 78 5 . 77 2 . 82 9 . 81 6 . 82 6 . 81 17 . 76 5 pets . 92 . 78 . 91 .93 .94 .94 13 .94 6 .93 20 .93 2 .94 2 .94 4 .93 6 .93 4 .94 4 .94 15 .93 21 organa . 01 .97 .98 . 45 . 45 . 44 6 . 44 19 . 45 20 . 45 4 . 56 18 . 45 7 . 62 17 . 45 15 . 49 10 . 44 21 . 41 10 blood . 12 .88 .88 . 60 . 60 . 60 5 . 59 16 . 70 15 . 60 10 . 64 13 . 59 13 .81 16 . 60 10 . 62 9 . 58 13 . 65 16 SVHN . 10 .93 .94 . 47 . 47 . 47 8 . 48 17 . 48 11 . 48 10 . 48 11 . 48 21 . 48 8 . 48 10 . 48 18 . 48 10 . 42 8 medabs . 20 . 41 . 50 . 46 . 50 . 60 14 . 60 12 . 61 20 . 61 11 . 60 15 . 53 9 . 58 12 . 61 11 .64 26 . 52 9 . 45 12 vicuna . 63 . 61 . 59 . 62 . 62 . 55 8 . 60 15 .65 20 . 61 11 . 64 9 . 53 17 . 58 12 . 62 11 . 62 11 . 52 4 . 56 10 pTED .64 . 63 . 63 .66 .66 . 52 19 . 51 12 . 61 17 .66 5 . 63 10 . 59 22 . 52 15 . 63 14 .66 16 . 57 11 . 60 12 tgpt . 77 . 79 . 80 . 83 . 83 . 80 14 . 80 14 .85 20 .84 14 . 81 9 . 74 11 . 81 12 .84 14 . 83 4 . 82 21 . 78 6 pol . 60 . 54 . 53 . 63 . 63 . 61 13 . 63 16 . 61 17 .65 6 . 63 8 .65 10 . 63 3 .65 11 . 63 14 . 63 10 .64 6 liar . 17 . 17 . 17 . 19 . 19 . 19 10 .20 20 . 19 20 .20 11 .20 15 . 19 13 . 19 20 . 19 18 .20 18 .20 13 . 18 20 Avg. . 52 .67 .70 .67 .67 . 64 25 . 20 . 66 29 . 98 .67 236 . 73 .67 8.13 . 66 11 . 02 . 63 13 . 53 . 66 10.73 . 66 20 . 76 . 66 20 . 62 . 65 32 . 84 . 64 33 . 27 Std. . 30 . 21 . 22 . 20 . 21 . 21 5 . 23 . 20 4 . 59 . 21 4 . 87 . 21 3 . 80 . 20 5 . 17 . 20 6 . 21 . 20 5 . 28 . 20 4 . 19 . 20 5 . 95 . 20 5 . 85 . 21 5 . 95 Rank 10 . 0 8 . 6 12 . 0 6 . 5 6 . 4 10 . 2 5 . 9 8 . 8 6 . 7 6 . 6 9 . 0 6 . 5 3 . 2 6 . 9 5 . 4 10 . 6 6 . 0 7 . 7 5 . 4 7 . 1 5 . 0 7 . 3 7 . 0 10 . 0 5 . 8 10 . 2 6 . 1 52 Table 22: Average Balanced Accuracy for PivotTree classifiers and selectors combined with knn, baselines and competitors. Subscripts indicate the average number of pivots ± std. dev. Best results in bold, second best in italics datasetknn X kms Z kmd Z ebl Z pts Z ppts Z opts Z oppts Z kms P kmd P ebl P pts P ppts P opts P oppts P ion.86.96 20 .99 14 .96 157 .95 8 .97 14 .96 13 .96 22 .86 20 .84 5 .95 80 .88 16 .80 15 .81 11 .84 20 fire.88.89 5 .91 19 .92 32 .84 6 .90 7 .93 9 .88 14 .91 9 .90 15 .91 38 .72 14 .79 4 .89 9 .81 2 yeast .47.50 12 .52 12 .47 60 .48 14 .48 16 .45 11 .47 9 .39 19 .45 20 .52 74 .23 14 .20 16 .32 24 .26 19 magic.79.76 10 .77 17 .75 902 .78 11 .77 9 .77 11 .77 11 .68 18 .59 8 .80 1542 .72 13 .73 14 .73 6 .73 13 sonar.94.84 10 .79 9 .92 50 .86 16 .74 9 .86 18 .81 14 .69 17 .77 15 .87 96 .54 14 .73 13 .67 15 .79 17 compas.51.49 13 .49 7 .51 724 .51 3 .51 6 .48 12 .49 8 .47 10 .40 8 .50 467 .52 12 .53 11 .52 13 .51 17 house.83.79 20 .78 19 .82 238 .80 14 .80 19 .76 16 .77 16 .51 13 .70 18 .81 2753 .76 10 .75 6 .75 20 .76 16 german.61.84 10 .79 9 .65 73 .58 10 .56 2 .55 7 .59 17 .74 7 .79 16 .59 170 .58 17 .60 4 .54 4 .60 8 spamb .89.89 13 .88 16 .89 186 .87 15 .87 20 .87 14 .84 13 .75 15 .77 19 .89 1319 .74 10 .60 19 .84 14 .78 3 norm.97.98 5 .97 20 .97 105 .97 12 .97 15 .97 6 .98 19 .96 16 .96 16 .98 272 .86 5 .97 4 .97 2 .94 2 lrs.47.43 20 .45 20 .44 19 .44 9 .45 21 .44 20 .43 18 .48 18 .39 19 .46 159 .43 17 .36 21 .47 20 .36 18 vert .73.83 10 .80 10 .69 112 .69 12 .68 17 .62 11 .71 13 .77 20 .76 15 .72 32 .54 12 .80 15 .65 11 .56 25 iris 1.00.87 2 .97 13 .95 4 .95 8 1.00 6 .95 8 1.00 11 .90 19 .85 18 .97 15 .97 10 .82 10 .85 5 1.00 7 wine .99.98 17 .98 17 .98 155 .98 14 .98 15 .99 9 .99 9 .97 19 .96 12 1.00 481 .95 10 .98 4 .92 9 .98 2 diva.75.47 18 .52 19 .75 169 .73 13 .73 15 .72 20 .67 10 .27 12 .22 20 .65 193 .63 8 .64 7 .52 20 .63 4 breast.95.82 10 .79 9 .94 41 .95 6 .95 8 .93 9 .96 10 .73 12 .76 16 .97 63 .85 10 .95 4 .87 9 .94 5 steel.77.70 18 .73 20 .75 73 .73 17 .73 19 .72 18 .72 16 .40 19 .54 20 .69 209 .55 15 .48 19 .54 18 .60 25 ecoli.71.67 11 .70 14 .76 18 .71 20 .68 14 .69 15 .69 22 .66 19 .73 19 .68 15 .64 14 .65 18 .63 15 .69 22 heloc.67.67 20 .67 19 .67 882 .67 10 .66 10 .67 21 .66 6 .66 15 .51 15 .67 882 .60 5 .65 2 .59 8 .65 2 page .89.89 20 .89 19 .90 65 .85 7 .89 14 .85 15 .87 12 .76 15 .74 15 .88 218 .75 8 .82 14 .72 11 .81 16 yoga .83.74 20 .76 10 .77 13 .77 23 .76 10 .71 8 .77 24 .52 8 .63 20 .80 146 .57 18 .57 10 .57 21 .65 24 star.89.87 19 .87 14 .87 270 .87 13 .87 14 .86 15 .85 9 .82 7 .80 19 .87 405 .85 14 .83 14 .76 7 .76 9 chlorine .15.25 12 .24 9 .24 115 .23 13 .24 17 .24 14 .25 12 .32 14 .33 8 .24 115 .34 13 .32 17 .34 13 .31 10 kitchen.39.44 13 .44 11 .37 138 .40 11 .39 15 .39 16 .42 11 .33 14 .41 11 .38 66 .34 11 .26 12 .34 13 .35 11 share .52.51 15 .52 2 .54 623 .52 3 .52 7 .55 9 .52 4 .50 9 .49 18 .53 392 .51 13 .50 6 .52 9 .50 12 devices.48.48 19 .51 19 .48 2062 .52 12 .49 18 .47 12 .45 11 .26 13 .22 20 .47 2062 .16 12 .20 3 .14 12 .21 4 gun .90.83 10 .80 10 .81 8 .85 5 .87 14 .88 10 .76 2 .75 20 .76 15 .88 37 .64 11 .82 20 .62 9 .71 12 worms.58.56 16 .58 12 .59 76 .62 9 .64 9 .53 9 .56 15 .49 14 .53 16 .57 76 .55 15 .47 17 .42 17 .48 19 ecg .56.55 7 .51 17 .55 31 .48 3 .51 20 .52 22 .53 15 .46 20 .54 18 .49 188 .54 20 .52 17 .53 22 .52 16 wafer .99.98 17 .97 6 .99 203 .98 13 .98 18 .97 9 .99 14 .95 14 .96 19 .99 67 .88 9 .97 6 .96 13 .97 8 oral.87.80 9 .82 12 .83 63 .84 15 .80 14 .78 19 .76 13 .71 13 .64 20 .82 27 .74 3 .67 11 .59 19 .60 13 MNIST .99.99 12 .99 9 .99 10 .99 15 .99 17 .99 15 .99 17 .99 10 .99 10 .99 10 .99 15 .99 17 .99 15 .99 17 cifar10.95.94 11 .94 10 .94 11 .93 15 .94 23 .94 13 .93 20 .95 10 .95 10 .95 11 .55 15 .43 23 .47 13 .34 20 catsdogs .94.94 7 .94 5 .94 21 .94 6 .94 6 .94 6 .94 6 .94 20 .95 5 .95 8 .94 4 .94 4 .95 6 .95 6 birds.81.82 18 .82 19 .83 194 .82 11 .81 4 .82 5 .81 15 .84 11 .81 15 .81 144 .75 17 .81 5 .80 5 .84 5 pets .92.94 15 .94 7 .94 32 .94 18 .93 4 .93 15 .93 2 .94 13 .94 2 .94 137 .88 7 .94 4 .89 15 .90 6 organa1.00.99 19 .99 19 1.00 39 .99 19 .98 18 .99 21 .98 17 .99 19 .99 20 1.00 798 .94 13 .44 18 .94 17 .60 17 blood .94.92 16 .92 20 .92 60 .92 16 .91 18 .93 18 .90 16 .91 16 .92 20 .94 456 .91 13 .71 18 .90 18 .49 16 SVHN .95.95 11 .95 17 .95 12 .95 10 .94 18 .95 21 .94 8 .94 20 .95 10 .95 18 .34 10 .34 18 .45 21 .19 8 medabs.60.60 18 .58 16 .60 118 .58 11 .58 26 .54 9 .54 12 .49 19 .39 9 .58 56 .46 11 .62 26 .37 9 .36 8 vicuna .69.66 17 .68 20 .73 153 .68 12 .72 17 .68 29 .68 12 .54 19 .56 3 .67 538 .53 12 .52 11 .61 29 .57 15 pTED.53.51 13 .53 20 .62 17 .65 9 .65 12 .59 9 .57 12 .53 20 .52 11 .62 30 .64 5 .63 12 .58 9 .55 12 tgpt .92.87 14 .90 20 .89 499 .91 14 .86 8 .89 21 .88 16 .80 15 .81 15 .91 633 .78 19 .81 4 .83 21 .79 16 pol.68.63 10 .65 15 .67 95 .68 11 .65 17 .66 16 .61 12 .60 20 .60 20 .65 41 .63 8 .51 8 .61 6 .63 3 liar .25.21 16 .22 20 .25 75 .19 11 .20 15 .22 13 .20 20 .19 19 .18 18 .19 232 .19 18 .18 18 .20 13 .19 4 Avg..76.74 13.73 .74 14.24 .76 200.07 .75 11.62 .74 13.67 .74 13.71 .73 13.00 .67 15.31 .68 14.69 .75 350.47 .65 12.00 .64 11.98 .65 13.24 .64 11.87 Std. .21.21 4.71 .21 5.06 .21 359.11 .21 4.47 .21 5.52 .21 5.28 .21 5.00 .23 4.11 .23 5.14 .21 563.51 .22 4.10 .23 6.38 .22 6.02 .23 6.84 Rank 4.56.7 7.0 6.1 7.0 4.8 11.8 6.1 5.4 6.7 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.6 6.2 10.5 8.1 10.1 7.7 5.3 12.9 11.3 5.5 10.7 6.0 11.1 6.6 10.6 5.9 53 Table 23: Average Balanced Accuracy for PivotTree classifiers and selectors combined with knn (max 20 pivots), baselines and competitors. Subscripts indicate the average number of pivots ± std. dev. Best results in bold, second best in italics datasetknn X kms Z kmd Z ebl Z pts Z ppts Z opts Z oppts Z kms P kmd P ebl P pts P ppts P opts P oppts P ion.86.96 20 .99 14 .95 20 .95 8 .97 14 .96 13 .96 22 .86 20 .84 5 .85 20 .88 16 .80 15 .81 11 .84 20 fire.88.89 5 .91 19 .91 11 .84 6 .90 7 .93 9 .88 14 .91 9 .90 15 .93 20 .72 14 .79 4 .89 9 .81 2 yeast .47.50 12 .52 12 .54 20 .48 14 .48 16 .45 11 .47 9 .39 19 .45 20 .52 20 .23 14 .20 16 .32 24 .26 19 magic.79.76 10 .77 17 .78 20 .78 11 .77 9 .77 11 .77 11 .68 18 .59 8 .73 20 .72 13 .73 14 .73 6 .73 13 sonar.94.84 10 .79 9 .78 20 .86 16 .74 9 .86 18 .81 14 .69 17 .77 15 .79 12 .54 14 .73 13 .67 15 .79 17 compas.51.49 13 .49 7 .51 20 .51 3 .51 6 .48 12 .49 8 .47 10 .40 8 .51 20 .52 12 .53 11 .52 13 .51 17 house.83.79 20 .78 19 .82 20 .80 14 .80 19 .76 16 .77 16 .51 13 .70 18 .77 20 .76 10 .75 6 .75 20 .76 16 german.61.84 10 .79 9 .57 20 .58 10 .56 2 .55 7 .59 17 .74 7 .79 16 .55 20 .58 17 .60 4 .54 4 .60 8 spamb .89.89 13 .88 16 .89 20 .87 15 .87 20 .87 14 .84 13 .75 15 .77 19 .88 20 .74 10 .60 19 .84 14 .78 3 norm.97.98 5 .97 20 .97 20 .97 12 .97 15 .97 6 .98 19 .96 16 .96 16 .97 20 .86 5 .97 4 .97 2 .94 2 lrs.47.43 20 .45 20 .44 19 .44 9 .45 21 .44 20 .43 18 .48 18 .39 19 .37 20 .43 17 .36 21 .47 20 .36 18 vert .73.83 10 .80 10 .73 20 .69 12 .68 17 .62 11 .71 13 .77 20 .76 15 .70 20 .54 12 .80 15 .65 11 .56 25 iris 1.00.87 2 .97 13 .95 4 .95 8 1.00 6 .95 8 1.00 11 .90 19 .85 18 .97 15 .97 10 .82 10 .85 5 1.00 7 wine .99.98 17 .98 17 .98 20 .98 14 .98 15 .99 9 .99 9 .97 19 .96 12 .98 20 .95 10 .98 4 .92 9 .98 2 diva.75.47 18 .52 19 .71 20 .73 13 .73 15 .72 20 .67 10 .27 12 .22 20 .59 20 .63 8 .64 7 .52 20 .63 4 breast.95.82 10 .79 9 .96 20 .95 6 .95 8 .93 9 .96 10 .73 12 .76 16 .96 20 .85 10 .95 4 .87 9 .94 5 steel.77.70 18 .73 20 .73 20 .73 17 .73 19 .72 18 .72 16 .40 19 .54 20 .60 20 .55 15 .48 19 .54 18 .60 25 ecoli.71.67 11 .70 14 .76 18 .71 20 .68 14 .69 15 .69 22 .66 19 .73 19 .68 15 .64 14 .65 18 .63 15 .69 22 heloc.67.67 20 .67 19 .66 20 .67 10 .66 10 .67 21 .66 6 .66 15 .51 15 .67 20 .60 5 .65 2 .59 8 .65 2 page .89.89 20 .89 19 .88 20 .85 7 .89 14 .85 15 .87 12 .76 15 .74 15 .80 20 .75 8 .82 14 .72 11 .81 16 yoga .83.74 20 .76 10 .77 13 .77 23 .76 10 .71 8 .77 24 .52 8 .63 20 .67 20 .57 18 .57 10 .57 21 .65 24 star.89.87 19 .87 14 .87 20 .87 13 .87 14 .86 15 .85 9 .82 7 .80 19 .83 20 .85 14 .83 14 .76 7 .76 9 chlorine .15.25 12 .24 9 .25 20 .23 13 .24 17 .24 14 .25 12 .32 14 .33 8 .30 12 .34 13 .32 17 .34 13 .31 10 kitchen.39.44 13 .44 11 .38 20 .40 11 .39 15 .39 16 .42 11 .33 14 .41 11 .46 20 .34 11 .26 12 .34 13 .35 11 share .52.51 15 .52 2 .53 20 .52 3 .52 7 .55 9 .52 4 .50 9 .49 18 .49 20 .51 13 .50 6 .52 9 .50 12 devices.48.48 19 .51 19 .51 20 .52 12 .49 18 .47 12 .45 11 .26 13 .22 20 .23 20 .16 12 .20 3 .14 12 .21 4 gun .90.83 10 .80 10 .81 8 .85 5 .87 14 .88 10 .76 2 .75 20 .76 15 .82 20 .64 11 .82 20 .62 9 .71 12 worms.58.56 16 .58 12 .58 5 .62 9 .64 9 .53 9 .56 15 .49 14 .53 16 .60 20 .55 15 .47 17 .42 17 .48 19 ecg .56.55 7 .51 17 .55 20 .48 3 .51 20 .52 22 .53 15 .46 20 .54 18 .52 20 .54 20 .52 17 .53 22 .52 16 wafer .99.98 17 .97 6 .98 20 .98 13 .98 18 .97 9 .99 14 .95 14 .96 19 .98 19 .88 9 .97 6 .96 13 .97 8 oral.87.80 9 .82 12 .78 20 .84 15 .80 14 .78 19 .76 13 .71 13 .64 20 .82 20 .74 3 .67 11 .59 19 .60 13 MNIST .99.99 12 .99 9 .99 10 .99 15 .99 17 .99 15 .99 17 .99 10 .99 10 .99 20 .99 15 .99 17 .99 15 .99 17 cifar10.95.94 11 .94 10 .94 20 .93 15 .94 23 .94 13 .93 20 .95 10 .95 10 .95 11 .55 15 .43 23 .47 13 .34 20 catsdogs .94.94 7 .94 5 .94 20 .94 6 .94 6 .94 6 .94 6 .94 20 .95 5 .95 8 .94 4 .94 4 .95 6 .95 6 birds.81.82 18 .82 19 .82 20 .82 11 .81 4 .82 5 .81 15 .84 11 .81 15 .80 20 .75 17 .81 5 .80 5 .84 5 pets .92.94 15 .94 7 .94 20 .94 18 .93 4 .93 15 .93 2 .94 13 .94 2 .94 20 .88 7 .94 4 .89 15 .90 6 organa1.00.99 19 .99 19 1.00 20 .99 19 .98 18 .99 21 .98 17 .99 19 .99 20 .99 20 .94 13 .44 18 .94 17 .60 17 blood .94.92 16 .92 20 .94 20 .92 16 .91 18 .93 18 .90 16 .91 16 .92 20 .93 20 .91 13 .71 18 .90 18 .49 16 SVHN .95.95 11 .95 17 .95 12 .95 10 .94 18 .95 21 .94 8 .94 20 .95 10 .95 18 .34 10 .34 18 .45 21 .19 8 medabs.60.60 18 .58 16 .60 20 .58 11 .58 26 .54 9 .54 12 .49 19 .39 9 .59 20 .46 11 .62 26 .37 9 .36 8 vicuna .69.66 17 .68 20 .74 20 .68 12 .72 17 .68 29 .68 12 .54 19 .56 3 .61 20 .53 12 .52 11 .61 29 .57 15 pTED.53.51 13 .53 20 .62 17 .65 9 .65 12 .59 9 .57 12 .53 20 .52 11 .62 20 .64 5 .63 12 .58 9 .55 12 tgpt .92.87 14 .90 20 .90 20 .91 14 .86 8 .89 21 .88 16 .80 15 .81 15 .88 20 .78 19 .81 4 .83 21 .79 16 pol.68.63 10 .65 15 .66 20 .68 11 .65 17 .66 16 .61 12 .60 20 .60 20 .62 20 .63 8 .51 8 .61 6 .63 3 liar .25.21 16 .22 20 .21 20 .19 11 .20 15 .22 13 .20 20 .19 19 .18 18 .18 20 .19 18 .18 18 .20 13 .19 4 Avg..76.74 13.73 .74 14.24 .75 18.16 .75 11.62 .74 13.67 .74 13.71 .73 13.00 .67 15.31 .68 14.69 .72 18.89 .65 12.00 .64 11.98 .65 13.24 .64 11.87 Std. .21.21 4.71 .21 5.06 .20 4.21 .21 4.47 .21 5.52 .21 5.28 .21 5.00 .23 4.11 .23 5.14 .22 2.83 .22 4.10 .23 6.38 .22 6.02 .23 6.84 Rank 4.46.4 7.1 5.9 7.2 5.0 11.1 5.9 5.5 6.6 7.2 6.9 7.5 7.3 6.3 10.4 8.3 10.1 8.0 7.2 11.7 11.1 5.6 10.6 6.1 11.1 6.8 10.5 6.1 54 Table 24: Average Balanced Accuracy ± std. dev. for RandomPivotForest with 100 PivotTree classifiers as estimators, and no sampling, against base- lines. When the splitting stump forest is adopted, subscripts indicate the average number of stumps ± std. dev. Best results in bold, second best in italics. model tabular images time-series text all xgb.84±.14.94±.05.67±.25.70±.25.80±.20 lgbm.83±.15.94±.05.64±.24.70±.25.79±.20 catb.83±.15.93±.06.66±.25.68±.25.79±.20 rdt.72±.21.93±.05.62±.23.56±.25.72±.23 rodt.72±.21.92±.06.61±.23.55±.24.72±.23 rpt.72±.22.73±.17.63±.23.57±.25.69±.22 ropt.70±.21.74±.16.62±.23.53±.24.67±.21 rppt.70±.22.92±.05.61±.22.55±.25.70±.23 roppt.70±.21.91±.05.61±.22.54±.25.70±.23 rdt s .63 74 ±.21 85 .91 282 ±.11 375 .56 197 ±.16 211 .55 190 ±.20 101 .66 158 ±.22 214 rodt s .65 97 ±.20 87 .91 267 ±.09 339 .56 250 ±.16 218 .55 200 ±.19 101 .67 179 ±.21 202 rpt s .63 80 ±.20 65 .81 189 ±.24 127 .55 182 ±.16 245 .56 182 ±.20 105 .64 138 ±.22 145 ropt s .64 91 ±.20 74 .74 122 ±.28 123 .55 161 ±.16 234 .55 213 ±.20 115 .63 129 ±.22 140 rppt s .64 133 ±.21 129 .92 168 ±.07 159 .57 275 ±.18 291 .56 147 ±.21 54 .67 173 ±.22 180 roppt s .65 101 ±.21 91 .91 175 ±.09 186 .56 251 ±.18 262 .55 169 ±.20 85 .67 158 ±.22 168 rdt b .52 50 ±.23 51 .34 270 ±.33 333 .44 166 ±.16 128 .42 97 ±.18 88 .45 126 ±.24 182 rodt b .51 88 ±.24 99 .37 105 ±.31 91 .42 103 ±.13 83 .44 107 ±.22 90 .45 97 ±.23 90 rpt b .55 63 ±.25 43 .35 81 ±.32 133 .45 88 ±.18 108 .42 93 ±.19 58 .47 76 ±.25 83 ropt b .52 64 ±.23 50 .37 67 ±.35 99 .43 44 ±.16 33 .40 68 ±.17 23 .46 61 ±.24 57 rppt b .51 66 ±.24 43 .38 90 ±.37 135 .45 72 ±.14 75 .45 56 ±.25 27 .46 71 ±.25 74 roppt b .52 62 ±.24 56 .35 55 ±.32 56 .42 87 ±.14 90 .40 119 ±.17 141 .45 74 ±.23 79 123456789101112131415161718192021 CATB 3.4778 LGBM 3.5778 XGB 3.7000 RPT 7.6556 RDT 7.9444 RODT 8.1000 RPPT 8.8556 ROPPT 9.2778 RODT S 9.9778 ROPT 10.1333 ROPPT S 10.3222 RPPT S 10.3222 RDT S 10.8667 RPT S 11.3111 ROPT S 11.7000 RPT B 16.5667 RDT B 16.8111 ROPT B 17.3333 RODT B 17.3444 RPPT B 17.6333 ROPPT B 18.0889 F1-score (no sampling) 123456789101112131415161718192021 LGBM 2.9222 CATB 2.9444 XGB 4.3667 RPT 8.2889 RPPT 8.5889 ROPPT 9.0222 RDT 9.4778 RODT 9.5333 ROPT 9.7000 RODT S 9.7222 ROPPT S 9.7778 RPPT S 9.9556 RDT S 10.2556 ROPT S 11.4667 RPT S 12.2000 ROPT B 16.2111 RPT B 16.6222 RODT B 17.3222 RDT B 17.3444 ROPPT B 17.5667 RPPT B 17.7111 F1-score (10% sampling) Fig. 14: Critical difference plots of ensemble models’ rankings in terms of weighted F1-score, evaluated using the Nemenyi test across all datasets. Models that are not significantly different at the 95% significance level are connected. The best models are positioned on the right. 55 Table 25: Average Balanced Accuracy ± std. dev. for RandomPivotForest with 100 PivotTree classifiers as estimators, and 10% of the training set is used to train each estimator, against baselines. When the splitting stump forest is adopted, subscripts indicate the average number of stumps ± std. dev. Best results in bold, second best in italics. model tabular images time-series text all xgb.80±.17.93±.05.61±.21.68±.25.77±.21 lgbm.83±.15.94±.05.64±.24.70±.25.79±.20 catb.82±.16.94±.05.66±.25.68±.25.79±.20 rdt.69±.23.92±.06.55±.17.53±.25.68±.23 rodt.68±.23.92±.06.56±.17.52±.25.68±.23 rpt.69±.23.83±.14.58±.20.56±.24.68±.22 ropt.67±.23.82±.15.58±.19.53±.24.66±.22 rppt.69±.23.92±.06.58±.20.54±.24.69±.23 roppt.68±.22.92±.06.58±.20.54±.24.69±.23 rdt s .63 77 ±.20 73 .91 222 ±.09 328 .55 174 ±.16 199 .54 150 ±.20 63 .66 137 ±.22 184 rodt s .64 89 ±.20 60 .91 189 ±.10 193 .55 178 ±.17 201 .54 197 ±.19 109 .66 143 ±.21 143 rpt s .63 84 ±.20 45 .63 69 ±.22 51 .54 112 ±.16 82 .55 148 ±.21 81 .60 96 ±.20 64 ropt s .64 88 ±.20 53 .67 51 ±.24 45 .55 107 ±.16 84 .55 159 ±.19 65 .61 94 ±.20 67 rppt s .65 119 ±.21 99 .91 136 ±.08 118 .55 221 ±.19 209 .56 169 ±.20 80 .67 152 ±.22 135 roppt s .65 97 ±.21 102 .89 145 ±.08 112 .56 190 ±.18 150 .56 176 ±.20 97 .67 138 ±.21 118 rdt b .52 80 ±.24 73 .29 131 ±.25 159 .45 63 ±.13 67 .42 98 ±.19 59 .45 89 ±.23 94 rodt b .51 70 ±.24 54 .30 230 ±.23 297 .46 83 ±.17 79 .41 86 ±.18 65 .45 107 ±.22 152 rpt b .54 68 ±.24 48 .37 31 ±.33 45 .44 53 ±.16 39 .40 128 ±.17 92 .46 65 ±.24 59 ropt b .53 65 ±.25 47 .31 24 ±.30 42 .44 45 ±.17 40 .40 60 ±.17 35 .45 52 ±.24 45 rppt b .51 73 ±.24 51 .34 50 ±.33 42 .42 75 ±.14 46 .39 67 ±.16 45 .44 68 ±.24 47 roppt b .52 68 ±.24 47 .35 97 ±.28 156 .41 73 ±.12 59 .39 77 ±.16 88 .44 76 ±.22 84 56 Table 26 : Average Weighted F1-Score for RandomPivotForest with 100 PivotTree c lassifiers as estimators, and no sampling, against baselines, for each dataset . When the splitting stump forest is adopted, subscripts indicate the average number of stumps ± std. dev. Best results in bold , second best in italics . dataset xgb lgbm catb rdt rodt rpt ropt rppt roppt rdt s rodt s rpt s ropt s rppt s roppt s rdt b rodt b rpt b ropt b rppt b roppt b ion .94 .95 .94 . 91 .95 . 93 . 93 . 93 .94 . 87 30 . 86 48 . 88 57 . 90 157 . 86 176 . 91 85 . 80 11 . 80 96 . 79 16 . 68 107 . 64 101 . 67 69 fire .99 .99 .99 .99 .97 . 95 . 93 . 95 . 95 . 62 20 . 73 101 . 66 82 . 73 73 . 68 222 . 67 69 . 85 24 . 85 222 . 89 55 . 73 88 . 81 73 . 71 36 yeast . 57 .60 .61 . 52 . 51 . 51 . 53 . 52 . 53 . 23 1 . 31 21 . 33 13 . 35 15 . 34 9 . 32 7 . 23 1 . 20 3 . 22 1 . 20 2 . 21 1 . 27 7 magic .88 .88 .87 . 70 . 70 . 70 . 69 . 69 . 67 . 75 33 . 75 53 . 76 44 . 76 66 . 78 180 . 76 78 . 48 14 . 55 39 . 65 14 . 63 22 . 51 51 . 60 28 sonar .87 .87 . 84 .87 . 84 .90 . 86 . 86 . 86 . 62 128 . 63 21 . 59 38 . 57 28 . 60 437 . 54 97 . 60 153 . 67 194 . 67 126 . 74 73 . 68 106 . 67 97 compas .63 .63 .64 . 50 . 50 . 50 . 49 . 47 . 48 . 47 7 . 50 45 . 51 38 . 50 29 . 50 59 . 51 48 . 38 22 . 38 69 . 38 95 . 38 89 . 38 53 . 38 47 house .89 .90 .90 . 81 . 82 . 81 . 74 . 76 . 75 . 80 59 . 80 179 . 79 187 . 79 262 . 77 406 . 77 392 . 58 1 . 58 3 . 58 5 . 58 116 . 58 114 . 58 126 german . 75 .77 .76 . 57 . 57 . 57 . 57 . 57 . 57 . 64 7 . 70 20 . 70 13 . 70 24 . 69 9 . 70 24 . 57 16 . 57 28 . 57 45 . 57 24 . 57 10 . 57 9 spamb .96 .95 .95 . 88 . 88 . 89 . 87 . 86 . 85 . 79 40 . 81 120 . 80 221 . 80 228 . 81 281 . 81 214 . 79 50 . 73 96 . 74 103 . 67 99 . 68 119 . 68 216 norm .97 .98 .98 . 96 .97 .98 .98 .98 .98 . 80 181 . 81 128 . 81 90 . 82 105 . 81 101 . 81 101 . 94 188 .97 104 .97 105 .97 105 .98 99 .97 106 lrs .85 .85 .83 . 80 . 80 . 75 . 77 . 79 . 80 . 60 357 . 57 297 . 54 154 . 54 188 . 57 174 . 54 179 . 37 187 . 41 285 . 42 72 . 44 116 . 51 81 . 38 87 vert .83 .85 . 82 . 75 . 78 . 75 . 75 . 78 . 79 . 68 14 . 67 80 . 65 18 . 68 15 . 64 47 . 67 31 . 71 14 . 62 22 . 70 9 . 67 24 . 61 25 . 61 21 iris 1.00 1.00 1.00 .98 .98 1.00 .98 1.00 . 96 . 81 11 . 75 13 . 73 13 . 72 15 . 76 12 . 73 11 . 28 14 . 31 30 . 70 11 . 64 13 . 34 12 . 83 2 wine 1.00 1.00 .99 . 98 . 98 .99 . 98 . 98 . 98 . 91 81 . 91 190 . 91 101 . 90 129 . 91 151 . 92 92 . 69 52 . 65 342 . 63 48 . 65 55 . 63 106 . 65 111 diva .92 .92 .93 . 76 . 76 . 71 . 67 . 65 . 64 . 79 34 . 79 46 . 79 125 . 78 128 . 80 98 . 80 175 . 63 41 . 63 42 . 63 52 . 63 45 . 63 41 . 63 49 breast .97 .97 .98 . 96 .97 .97 . 95 . 96 .97 . 96 113 . 96 53 . 95 103 . 93 50 . 94 106 . 95 28 . 89 114 . 94 348 . 95 103 . 91 199 . 93 60 . 92 88 steel . 79 .81 .80 . 63 . 64 . 62 . 57 . 60 . 62 . 52 127 . 54 142 . 52 44 . 53 49 . 55 206 . 54 97 . 23 49 . 26 25 . 26 36 . 29 3 . 20 21 . 33 8 ecoli .85 .83 .83 . 77 . 73 . 73 . 73 . 72 . 72 . 61 44 . 66 29 . 64 29 . 58 33 . 61 57 . 62 23 . 49 18 . 49 21 . 47 27 . 50 28 . 46 19 . 50 21 heloc .71 .71 .71 .70 .70 .71 .70 .70 .70 .70 40 .70 58 . 68 133 . 69 124 .70 88 . 69 92 . 51 33 . 55 55 . 56 106 . 50 27 . 51 142 . 45 104 page .97 .97 .97 . 95 . 95 . 95 . 93 . 93 . 93 . 92 112 . 95 153 . 93 93 . 95 92 .96 143 .96 149 . 85 41 . 85 13 . 86 74 . 85 53 . 84 7 . 84 0 yoga .79 .77 .79 . 73 . 72 . 75 . 74 . 73 .77 . 60 126 . 58 68 . 61 21 . 59 27 . 70 110 . 67 83 . 50 66 . 45 4 . 52 10 . 45 8 . 44 300 . 38 242 star .95 .95 .94 . 90 . 90 . 91 . 89 . 83 . 79 . 79 444 . 80 99 . 80 147 . 81 218 . 80 139 . 79 113 . 41 127 . 42 121 . 49 104 . 41 104 . 70 38 . 47 39 chlorine . 06 . 08 . 09 . 08 . 08 . 08 . 07 . 08 . 08 . 12 20 . 17 38 . 17 38 . 10 19 .21 645 .22 384 . 13 34 . 13 42 . 08 47 . 08 32 . 09 29 . 09 37 kitchen .70 . 68 . 69 .70 .70 .73 .73 . 61 . 61 . 63 166 . 69 372 . 69 121 . 67 125 . 61 265 . 62 219 . 41 417 . 40 181 . 40 79 . 33 64 . 53 66 . 46 48 share .64 .63 .63 . 56 . 56 . 56 . 56 . 56 . 56 . 61 136 . 59 196 . 61 157 . 59 221 . 59 53 . 60 85 . 58 140 . 56 15 . 56 367 . 56 47 . 56 11 . 56 24 devices .67 .66 . 63 . 43 . 43 . 42 . 43 . 40 . 40 . 45 689 . 44 744 . 41 815 . 44 789 . 44 846 . 44 803 . 27 172 . 26 198 . 23 102 . 22 170 . 20 418 . 18 248 gun . 87 . 63 .91 .93 .91 . 85 . 87 . 86 . 85 . 69 97 . 67 131 . 69 33 . 67 46 . 67 58 . 67 45 . 70 85 . 57 92 . 77 61 . 76 19 . 53 43 . 45 53 worms .60 .62 .62 .60 . 53 .62 . 56 .60 . 59 . 49 65 . 51 64 . 56 116 . 50 34 . 56 44 . 55 316 . 56 8 . 45 9 . 58 24 . 46 34 . 48 65 . 49 109 ecg .93 .93 .93 . 91 . 91 .92 . 91 . 91 . 91 . 88 181 . 89 184 . 87 132 . 88 123 . 89 84 . 88 62 . 67 103 . 60 125 . 47 16 . 64 16 . 68 9 . 64 14 wafer .99 .99 .99 .97 .97 .99 .99 .99 .99 . 94 133 . 96 168 . 92 44 . 94 41 . 96 516 .97 562 . 84 206 . 84 220 . 84 4 . 84 131 . 84 126 . 84 85 oral .88 .88 . 85 . 86 . 84 .89 . 85 .88 .89 . 65 237 . 71 350 . 70 394 . 64 280 . 78 403 . 70 289 . 29 122 . 20 32 . 33 102 . 45 36 . 18 403 . 32 183 MNIST .99 .99 .99 .99 .99 . 55 . 55 . 88 .89 .99 58 .99 71 .99 185 .99 169 .99 217 .99 73 . 05 466 . 10 96 . 02 410 . 02 390 . 11 205 . 03 68 cifar10 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 . 62 . 72 .95 .95 .94 145 .95 51 . 14 3 . 15 2 .94 92 .94 67 . 11 28 . 14 82 . 06 3 . 19 17 . 11 15 . 07 1 catsdogs .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 51 .95 55 .95 100 .95 45 .95 15 .95 19 .95 97 .95 100 .95 100 .95 100 . 85 17 .93 46 birds . 88 .90 .90 .89 .90 .89 . 88 .89 .89 .89 24 .89 22 . 87 118 . 86 28 . 88 119 . 88 55 . 88 115 . 86 119 . 84 105 . 76 28 . 86 42 . 86 28 pets .94 .94 .94 .94 .94 .95 .94 .94 .94 .94 235 .94 225 .94 167 .94 91 .94 47 .94 271 . 55 152 . 55 2 . 64 4 . 64 18 . 93 1 . 55 125 organa 1.00 1.00 1.00 . 98 . 98 . 75 . 76 . 98 . 97 .99 590 .99 985 . 89 203 . 27 4 . 97 83 . 98 105 . 07 1096 . 08 12 . 20 105 . 17 88 . 09 1 . 06 10 blood .95 .95 .94 . 92 . 92 . 69 . 68 . 93 . 90 . 93 1160 . 93 634 . 89 377 . 89 341 . 93 453 . 93 600 . 14 1176 . 14 1257 . 05 273 . 05 224 . 07 79 . 09 43 SVHN .95 .95 .96 .95 .95 . 57 . 57 .95 .95 .95 29 .95 123 .95 151 . 93 131 .95 80 .95 87 . 06 55 . 15 2 . 23 101 . 13 103 . 08 34 . 07 24 medabs .61 .61 .61 . 47 . 47 . 49 . 47 . 49 . 48 . 53 240 . 53 274 . 52 185 . 53 180 .55 170 .55 169 . 17 240 . 17 252 . 20 4 . 17 9 . 17 27 . 17 19 vicuna .87 .87 .86 . 54 . 54 . 63 . 43 . 44 . 43 . 65 286 . 66 308 . 66 362 . 66 160 . 67 149 . 67 302 . 42 12 . 42 12 . 42 139 . 42 70 . 42 14 . 42 80 pTED .79 . 77 .78 . 49 . 49 . 53 . 46 . 47 . 46 . 64 282 . 63 282 . 63 182 . 62 254 . 64 130 . 61 112 . 46 151 . 46 153 . 46 174 . 46 64 . 46 60 . 46 49 tgpt .97 .97 .96 . 92 . 91 . 92 . 89 . 93 . 91 . 78 126 . 77 155 . 78 123 . 81 332 . 80 239 . 78 132 . 57 91 . 75 103 . 57 94 . 44 51 . 85 99 . 45 93 pol .73 .73 . 70 . 71 . 71 .72 . 70 . 71 . 71 . 60 72 . 55 92 . 59 63 . 57 51 . 56 91 . 58 66 . 54 72 . 49 97 . 57 106 . 58 110 . 50 39 . 42 66 liar .26 .25 .25 . 18 . 17 . 18 . 17 . 18 . 17 . 20 100 . 21 86 . 20 131 . 21 195 . 18 102 . 19 109 . 10 16 . 10 25 . 07 422 . 11 274 . 08 31 . 07 554 Avg. .83 .82 .83 . 77 . 76 . 74 . 72 . 75 . 75 . 71 158 . 47 . 72 168 . 31 . 69 132 . 53 . 68 127 . 02 . 72 180 . 27 . 72 158 . 22 . 50 139 . 78 . 49 119 . 73 . 52 90 . 20 . 50 77.67 . 50 75.84 . 48 78 . 22 Std. . 19 . 19 . 19 . 22 . 22 . 21 . 22 . 22 . 22 . 21 212 . 61 . 20 195 . 44 . 21 138 . 94 . 22 136 . 65 . 20 175 . 86 . 20 167 . 23 .26 238 . 70 . 26 196 . 27 . 26 99 . 75 . 25 76 . 54 . 27 92 . 89 . 26 94 . 75 Rank 3 . 7 10 . 1 3 . 6 10 . 1 3 . 5 10 . 1 7 . 9 10 . 1 8 . 1 10 . 1 7 . 7 10 . 1 10 . 1 10 . 1 8 . 9 10 . 1 9 . 3 10 . 1 10 . 9 10 . 9 10 . 0 9 . 1 11 . 3 9 . 5 11 . 7 10 . 5 10 . 3 8 . 1 10 . 3 10 . 4 16 . 8 12 . 6 17 . 3 12 . 0 16 . 6 12 . 7 17 . 3 13 . 9 17 . 6 15 . 2 18 . 1 15 . 1 57 Table 27 : Average Weighted F1-Score for RandomPivotForest with 100 PivotTree c lassifiers as estimators, and 10% of the training set is used to train each estimator, against baselines, for each dataset . When the splitting stump forest is adopted, subscripts indicate the average number of stumps ± std. dev. Best results in bold , second best in italics . dataset xgb lgbm catb rdt rodt rpt ropt rppt roppt rdt s rodt s rpt s ropt s rppt s roppt s rdt b rodt b rpt b ropt b rppt b roppt b ion .93 .95 .95 . 90 . 91 . 89 . 91 . 86 . 86 . 86 46 . 86 41 . 89 37 . 88 36 . 91 72 . 91 103 . 50 17 . 50 74 . 73 107 . 71 99 . 69 26 . 62 40 fire .99 .99 .99 .96 .96 . 93 . 92 . 93 . 93 . 58 14 . 69 53 . 69 80 . 71 95 . 74 83 . 71 109 . 89 98 . 90 101 . 73 107 . 82 99 . 78 109 . 72 73 yeast . 56 .57 .58 . 52 . 48 . 53 . 49 . 52 . 52 . 34 12 . 34 51 . 33 81 . 35 46 . 33 59 . 35 62 . 25 21 . 18 3 . 20 11 . 27 36 . 14 2 . 19 91 magic .87 .88 .87 . 70 . 70 . 70 . 69 . 69 . 68 . 73 53 . 75 57 . 75 44 . 75 67 . 78 267 . 75 68 . 56 34 . 59 57 . 67 10 . 65 25 . 51 91 . 53 30 sonar . 78 .87 .84 . 77 . 76 . 79 . 65 .84 . 81 . 62 102 . 59 123 . 65 53 . 65 10 . 59 8 . 59 14 . 74 100 . 61 76 . 63 83 . 62 10 . 60 151 . 55 14 compas .64 .63 .63 . 48 . 48 . 51 . 50 . 49 . 49 . 47 11 . 53 49 . 48 40 . 50 57 . 49 58 . 52 56 . 38 36 . 38 70 . 38 96 . 38 89 . 38 71 . 38 85 house .89 .90 .89 . 81 . 81 . 80 . 75 . 75 . 75 . 80 179 . 80 223 . 78 187 . 77 209 . 77 415 . 78 455 . 58 158 . 58 155 . 59 9 . 58 109 . 58 115 . 58 123 german . 73 .77 .76 . 57 . 57 . 57 . 57 . 57 . 57 . 64 7 . 70 15 . 70 42 . 70 39 . 70 37 . 70 21 . 57 10 . 57 10 . 57 8 . 57 11 . 57 2 . 57 41 spamb .95 .95 .95 . 87 . 87 .88 . 87 . 86 . 85 . 79 56 . 81 99 . 79 116 . 78 87 . 81 108 . 82 175 . 75 122 . 80 98 . 73 86 . 54 116 . 71 123 . 71 99 norm .97 .98 .97 .97 .97 .98 .97 .98 .98 . 81 222 . 81 49 . 81 71 . 82 45 . 81 63 . 81 68 . 95 226 .97 118 .97 100 .98 87 .98 95 .98 106 lrs .81 .88 .81 . 80 . 79 . 75 . 75 . 76 . 79 . 57 252 . 57 237 . 55 149 . 53 137 . 56 80 . 55 57 . 38 280 . 40 186 . 45 134 . 42 165 . 35 93 . 35 172 vert .86 .85 . 84 . 76 . 76 . 75 . 73 . 78 . 78 . 66 21 . 62 66 . 62 68 . 62 18 . 65 151 . 62 46 . 63 75 . 63 86 . 60 106 . 63 104 . 65 152 . 71 111 iris .98 1.00 1.00 1.00 .98 . 96 1.00 1.00 1.00 . 82 18 . 71 113 . 71 38 . 70 35 . 75 59 . 73 19 . 69 123 . 45 53 . 87 38 . 89 36 . 65 20 . 89 19 wine .99 1.00 .99 . 98 . 98 . 98 . 98 . 98 . 98 . 91 89 . 91 88 . 91 129 . 91 102 . 91 211 . 91 136 . 69 82 . 65 94 . 69 11 . 64 133 . 63 84 . 63 102 diva .91 .92 .91 . 74 . 74 . 70 . 67 . 65 . 64 . 80 34 . 80 53 . 78 74 . 79 69 . 80 133 . 80 117 . 63 34 . 63 34 . 63 75 . 63 54 . 63 40 . 63 46 breast .99 . 95 .98 . 96 . 96 . 95 . 94 . 95 . 95 . 95 53 . 95 64 . 94 92 . 95 24 . 94 67 . 94 19 . 93 62 . 88 12 . 91 115 . 92 89 . 91 100 . 90 95 steel . 74 .80 .77 . 50 . 49 . 57 . 56 . 57 . 59 . 53 88 . 54 133 . 53 62 . 53 75 . 53 270 . 57 205 . 28 68 . 20 11 . 21 6 . 31 2 . 20 11 . 37 8 ecoli . 82 .83 .88 . 65 . 64 . 64 . 65 . 67 . 67 . 59 20 . 56 105 . 56 158 . 55 140 . 55 141 . 53 135 . 43 19 . 49 37 . 51 133 . 48 22 . 45 13 . 41 88 heloc .71 .71 .71 .70 .70 .70 .70 .70 .70 .70 50 .70 31 .70 91 . 69 133 . 69 113 . 69 92 . 50 75 . 61 134 . 66 102 . 46 34 . 39 127 . 47 40 page .96 .97 .97 . 93 . 93 . 94 . 93 . 93 . 93 . 92 134 . 94 130 . 93 93 . 95 64 .96 143 .96 149 . 84 0 . 84 0 . 86 101 . 85 53 . 84 19 . 84 8 yoga . 68 .77 .79 . 59 . 58 . 63 . 65 . 67 . 69 . 64 144 . 63 155 . 62 99 . 66 69 . 67 123 . 68 139 . 37 13 . 37 14 . 45 15 . 49 14 . 55 125 . 46 23 star . 92 .95 .94 . 79 . 79 . 89 . 90 . 80 . 80 . 79 235 . 80 224 . 81 114 . 80 104 . 82 284 . 81 217 . 79 100 . 79 100 . 41 121 . 42 111 . 42 4 . 42 81 chlorine . 12 . 08 . 10 . 08 . 08 . 09 . 08 . 08 . 08 .17 98 .21 172 . 16 43 . 16 38 .21 645 .21 279 . 09 13 . 09 20 . 09 21 . 08 7 . 09 150 . 09 347 kitchen . 66 .68 .70 . 59 . 59 . 67 . 66 . 59 . 53 . 63 134 . 62 86 . 66 109 . 63 101 . 63 145 . 60 145 . 50 96 . 64 166 . 44 18 . 43 37 . 46 117 . 35 113 share . 59 .63 .62 . 56 . 56 . 56 . 56 . 56 . 56 . 60 176 . 60 70 . 55 257 . 59 159 . 58 29 . 59 76 . 56 5 . 56 6 . 56 43 . 60 6 . 56 52 . 56 65 devices . 61 .66 .63 . 43 . 43 . 42 . 43 . 41 . 40 . 42 701 . 43 718 . 41 246 . 41 320 . 43 236 . 42 181 . 26 214 . 27 221 . 27 81 . 27 145 . 16 92 . 16 5 gun . 65 . 63 .94 .81 . 79 . 70 . 67 . 74 . 76 . 66 60 . 65 61 . 68 58 . 63 53 . 63 16 . 66 15 . 42 49 . 43 49 . 72 66 . 71 70 . 36 19 . 44 19 worms . 57 .62 . 56 . 45 . 55 . 56 . 59 . 59 . 58 . 53 94 . 55 133 . 53 19 . 53 89 . 44 112 . 54 168 . 55 14 .63 12 . 49 107 . 59 12 . 55 42 . 49 171 ecg .91 .93 .93 . 88 . 88 . 89 . 88 . 89 . 89 . 89 215 . 89 171 . 87 124 . 87 93 . 89 128 . 89 145 . 78 97 . 49 166 . 57 88 . 56 51 . 75 104 . 86 105 wafer .98 .99 .99 . 93 . 94 . 97 . 97 .98 .99 . 94 46 . 94 93 . 92 44 . 94 41 . 96 516 . 97 562 . 84 4 . 83 5 . 84 113 . 84 131 . 84 105 . 84 99 oral .88 .88 .88 .85 . 84 . 82 . 78 . 82 . 84 . 70 54 . 69 264 . 64 177 . 79 158 . 74 251 . 76 175 . 27 105 . 21 128 . 45 112 . 35 85 . 23 88 . 26 109 MNIST .99 .99 .99 .99 .99 .99 .99 .99 .99 .99 124 .99 130 . 44 35 . 44 34 .99 42 .74 11 . 08 29 . 03 489 . 02 200 . 02 204 . 14 201 . 07 234 cifar10 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .94 74 .94 72 . 60 62 . 63 53 .94 36 .94 49 . 07 95 . 06 51 . 11 21 . 19 17 . 06 44 . 11 7 catsdogs .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 126 .95 133 .95 91 .95 16 .95 304 .95 107 . 33 142 . 33 107 .95 100 .95 100 .94 109 . 80 489 birds .89 .90 .90 .89 .89 .89 . 88 .89 .89 .89 92 .90 58 . 87 81 . 88 57 . 88 55 . 88 163 . 87 118 . 87 68 . 83 19 . 73 2 . 87 29 . 86 30 pets .94 .94 .94 .95 .94 .94 .94 .94 .94 .94 37 .94 47 . 93 90 . 93 56 .94 89 .94 254 . 55 96 . 16 0 . 62 1 . 48 1 . 58 6 . 55 7 organa 1.00 1.00 1.00 . 97 . 98 . 76 . 76 . 98 . 98 .99 849 .99 496 . 40 10 . 45 8 . 97 85 . 98 111 . 05 21 . 05 286 . 05 10 . 09 7 . 05 198 . 07 21 blood .94 .95 .95 . 91 . 91 . 75 . 72 . 92 . 92 . 93 739 . 93 509 . 61 59 . 77 51 . 93 310 . 93 367 . 07 128 . 08 145 . 04 7 . 07 4 . 12 111 . 20 148 SVHN .95 .95 .95 .95 .96 . 72 . 73 .95 . 94 .95 29 .95 77 . 44 14 . 26 7 .95 68 .95 64 . 19 530 . 18 521 . 19 13 . 08 9 . 06 35 . 06 64 medabs .61 .61 .60 . 46 . 46 . 48 . 47 . 49 . 49 . 54 230 . 54 228 . 53 154 . 54 91 . 54 167 . 54 174 . 17 199 . 17 200 . 08 0 . 18 4 . 17 19 . 17 26 vicuna . 84 .87 .86 . 43 . 43 . 60 . 46 . 44 . 42 . 66 169 . 66 166 . 66 190 . 66 137 . 67 231 . 69 269 . 42 82 . 42 82 . 44 18 . 42 13 . 42 22 . 42 21 pTED .77 .77 .75 . 46 . 46 . 53 . 46 . 47 . 46 . 62 155 . 61 227 . 61 154 . 61 195 . 63 232 . 61 138 . 46 63 . 46 66 . 46 280 . 46 12 . 46 62 . 46 68 tgpt .95 .97 .95 . 90 . 91 . 91 . 90 . 91 . 90 . 78 152 . 76 366 . 80 269 . 77 236 . 78 236 . 79 251 . 65 100 . 56 100 . 49 132 . 43 111 . 38 128 . 58 32 pol . 69 .73 .70 .70 . 67 .70 . 66 . 69 . 69 . 54 38 . 55 36 . 60 52 . 59 48 . 59 89 . 59 41 . 49 115 . 49 58 . 54 89 . 58 86 . 50 35 . 50 41 liar .24 .25 .24 . 11 . 11 . 18 . 18 . 18 . 17 . 21 151 . 21 159 . 19 124 . 21 156 . 20 55 . 20 99 . 07 27 . 11 7 . 13 12 . 11 17 . 15 12 . 15 54 Avg. .81 .82 .82 . 74 . 74 . 73 . 72 . 74 . 74 . 71 141 . 84 . 71 147 . 36 . 66 97 . 33 . 66 85 . 73 . 72 156 . 04 . 71 140 . 13 . 49 91 . 00 . 47 99 . 47 . 51 69.44 . 50 58.42 . 48 74 . 51 . 49 83 . 78 Std. . 19 . 19 . 19 . 23 . 23 . 21 . 21 . 22 . 22 . 20 181 . 93 . 20 139 . 48 . 19 63 . 14 . 20 65 . 55 . 20 132 . 55 . 20 114 . 28 . 26 92 . 47 . 26 110 . 43 . 27 59 . 53 . 26 52 . 38 . 26 54 . 11 . 26 90 . 24 Rank 4 . 4 5 . 0 2 . 9 5 . 0 2 . 9 5 . 0 9 . 5 5 . 0 9 . 5 5 . 0 8 . 3 5 . 0 9 . 7 5 . 0 8 . 6 5 . 0 9 . 0 5 . 0 10 . 3 15 . 0 9 . 7 14 . 0 12 . 2 14 . 9 11 . 5 16 . 1 10 . 0 13 . 6 9 . 8 13 . 9 17 . 3 16 . 3 17 . 3 16 . 0 16 . 6 16 . 4 16 . 2 17 . 4 17 . 7 16 . 4 17 . 6 16 . 0 58 Table 28 : Average Balanced Accuracy for RandomPivotForest with 100 PivotTree c lassifiers as estimators, and no sampling, against baselines, for each dataset . When the splitting stump forest is adopted, subscripts indicate the average number of stumps ± std. dev. Best results in bold , second best in italics . dataset xgb lgbm catb rdt rodt rpt ropt rppt roppt rdt s rodt s rpt s ropt s rppt s roppt s rdt b rodt b rpt b ropt b rppt b roppt b ion .93 .94 .93 . 89 .94 . 92 . 92 . 91 .93 . 85 30 . 83 48 . 87 83 . 89 157 . 84 176 . 89 85 . 63 17 . 63 126 . 78 16 . 67 107 . 60 101 . 62 69 fire .99 .98 .99 .99 . 97 . 94 . 93 . 94 . 94 . 63 17 . 74 101 . 65 82 . 71 73 . 67 222 . 67 69 . 85 24 . 85 222 . 88 55 . 70 88 . 80 73 . 68 36 yeast .59 . 49 .56 . 29 . 30 . 36 . 39 . 30 . 31 . 15 1 . 25 26 . 25 13 . 30 15 . 27 9 . 28 7 . 12 1 . 11 0 . 11 1 . 10 2 . 11 0 . 11 0 magic .85 .86 .85 . 65 . 64 . 65 . 63 . 63 . 62 . 70 33 . 70 53 . 71 44 . 71 66 . 73 180 . 72 78 . 55 33 . 49 39 . 59 14 . 58 22 . 50 51 . 55 28 sonar .88 . 87 . 84 . 87 . 85 .90 . 85 . 85 . 85 . 62 128 . 63 21 . 58 38 . 57 28 . 61 437 . 55 97 . 60 153 . 68 194 . 67 126 . 73 73 . 67 106 . 67 97 compas .55 .55 .56 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 44 . 42 . 42 . 42 6 . 43 45 . 43 38 . 43 28 . 44 46 . 43 48 . 33 22 . 33 69 . 33 95 . 33 89 . 33 53 . 33 47 house .87 .87 .87 . 74 . 74 . 73 . 64 . 66 . 66 . 74 98 .75 312 . 72 246 . 73 262 . 69 406 . 70 392 . 50 1 . 50 3 . 50 107 . 50 116 . 50 114 . 50 126 german .68 .70 . 65 . 50 . 50 . 50 . 50 . 50 . 50 . 55 7 . 63 20 . 63 13 . 63 21 . 62 9 . 63 24 . 50 16 . 50 28 . 50 45 . 50 24 . 50 10 . 50 9 spamb .96 .95 .95 . 86 . 87 . 87 . 85 . 84 . 83 . 77 68 . 79 120 . 78 221 . 78 228 . 79 281 . 79 214 . 77 50 . 71 96 . 72 103 . 66 99 . 66 119 . 67 216 norm .97 .98 .98 . 96 .97 .98 .98 .98 .98 . 80 181 . 81 128 . 81 90 . 82 105 . 81 95 . 81 101 . 94 188 .97 104 .97 105 .97 105 .98 99 .97 106 lrs .62 .63 . 61 . 41 . 48 . 41 . 40 . 45 . 47 . 26 357 . 24 297 . 20 106 . 21 188 . 21 133 . 22 110 . 18 99 . 14 285 . 15 107 . 15 97 . 15 77 . 13 87 vert .80 .80 .77 . 65 . 69 . 65 . 66 . 67 . 70 . 60 14 . 54 80 . 52 18 . 56 15 . 51 47 . 57 31 . 65 14 . 48 22 . 59 9 . 53 24 . 50 36 . 47 21 iris 1.00 1.00 1.00 .97 .97 1.00 .97 1.00 . 92 . 79 11 . 72 13 . 69 13 . 67 15 . 72 12 . 72 29 . 44 14 . 46 5 . 70 11 . 68 13 . 51 12 . 82 2 wine .99 .99 .99 . 96 . 96 .98 . 96 . 97 . 96 . 87 81 . 87 190 . 87 48 . 86 129 . 87 12 . 89 92 . 55 52 . 52 342 . 50 48 . 52 55 . 50 106 . 51 111 diva .90 .90 .90 . 62 . 62 . 57 . 53 . 52 . 50 . 70 34 . 70 46 . 70 125 . 69 128 . 71 98 .72 175 . 50 41 . 50 42 . 50 52 . 50 45 . 50 41 . 50 49 breast .97 . 95 .97 .96 .96 .97 . 94 . 95 .96 .96 113 .96 53 . 95 103 . 93 50 . 93 33 .96 28 . 88 114 . 91 57 . 93 115 . 91 199 . 93 60 . 91 88 steel .81 .82 . 79 . 51 . 51 . 51 . 46 . 47 . 49 . 41 127 . 46 142 . 45 44 . 43 59 . 49 206 . 48 181 . 15 49 . 17 25 . 16 36 . 18 3 . 14 74 . 20 8 ecoli .72 .70 . 68 . 61 . 58 . 57 . 58 . 57 . 57 . 35 6 . 42 28 . 39 35 . 37 33 . 33 8 . 42 7 . 25 18 . 26 21 . 24 27 . 26 28 . 23 19 . 26 21 heloc .71 .71 .71 .70 .70 .70 .70 .70 .70 . 69 40 . 69 58 . 68 133 . 69 124 . 69 88 . 69 92 . 51 33 . 55 55 . 58 106 . 52 27 . 54 142 . 47 104 page .92 .93 . 91 . 79 . 80 . 82 . 73 . 74 . 74 . 75 112 . 87 153 . 78 93 . 84 92 . 90 143 . 89 149 . 51 41 . 53 13 . 53 74 . 51 53 . 50 7 . 50 0 yoga .79 . 77 .78 . 73 . 72 . 75 . 74 . 73 . 77 . 60 126 . 58 68 . 62 21 . 59 27 . 69 110 . 66 83 . 57 127 . 58 24 . 54 10 . 56 23 . 50 22 . 50 242 star .93 .93 .91 . 82 . 82 . 83 . 80 . 71 . 67 . 69 444 . 70 409 . 71 147 . 70 218 . 69 139 . 68 113 . 31 127 . 33 121 . 37 104 . 32 104 . 55 38 . 32 1 chlorine . 12 . 12 . 13 . 26 . 26 . 25 . 27 . 28 . 29 . 31 20 . 30 38 . 30 30 . 29 19 . 26 645 . 27 384 .33 34 .32 42 . 30 47 . 29 54 .33 29 .33 37 kitchen . 71 . 70 . 70 . 71 .72 .74 .74 . 65 . 64 . 65 183 . 70 372 . 70 121 . 68 84 . 64 265 . 59 48 . 49 417 . 49 181 . 49 79 . 43 64 . 55 49 . 56 48 share .56 .54 .54 . 50 . 50 . 50 . 50 . 50 . 50 . 50 27 . 51 196 . 49 367 . 51 221 . 51 53 . 51 85 . 51 140 . 50 204 . 50 367 . 50 47 . 50 11 . 50 24 devices .59 .58 . 55 . 35 . 36 . 36 . 35 . 34 . 34 . 36 689 . 35 744 . 32 815 . 34 789 . 34 846 . 34 803 . 22 172 . 22 225 . 21 95 . 20 77 . 16 226 . 16 248 gun . 87 . 63 .91 .93 .91 . 85 . 87 . 86 . 85 . 69 97 . 67 131 . 69 33 . 67 46 . 67 58 . 67 45 . 70 85 . 57 92 . 78 126 . 75 7 . 53 43 . 55 53 worms .59 .61 .61 .59 . 52 .61 . 56 .59 . 58 . 48 65 . 50 64 . 55 116 . 49 34 . 55 44 . 54 316 . 56 8 . 45 9 .59 24 . 48 34 . 55 163 . 53 109 ecg .52 .53 . 51 . 45 . 44 . 49 . 47 . 45 . 45 . 48 181 . 48 308 . 42 118 . 44 123 . 48 72 . 45 62 . 22 337 . 25 125 . 19 16 . 27 16 . 29 9 . 27 14 wafer .98 .98 .97 . 88 . 88 . 95 . 95 .97 .98 . 80 133 . 82 168 . 71 44 . 78 41 . 86 516 . 89 562 . 50 206 . 50 0 . 50 4 . 50 7 . 50 126 . 50 85 oral .88 .88 . 84 . 87 . 84 .89 . 85 .88 .89 . 65 237 . 71 350 . 70 394 . 64 280 . 78 403 . 70 289 . 33 188 . 35 236 . 39 102 . 40 239 . 26 403 . 40 183 MNIST .99 .99 .99 .99 .99 . 60 . 60 .90 .90 .99 58 .99 57 .99 185 .99 169 .99 217 .99 73 . 10 466 . 20 96 . 10 410 . 10 0 . 20 205 . 10 68 cifar10 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 . 67 . 77 .95 .95 .94 145 .95 51 . 22 3 . 29 2 .94 92 .94 67 . 04 154 . 06 137 . 13 3 . 10 0 . 04 14 . 11 19 catsdogs .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 51 .95 55 .95 100 .95 45 .95 15 .95 19 .95 97 .95 100 .95 100 .95 100 . 85 17 .93 46 birds .84 .84 .84 .83 .83 . 82 . 80 . 82 . 80 . 82 24 . 82 22 . 80 118 . 77 28 . 81 119 . 81 86 . 78 115 . 74 119 . 72 105 . 60 28 .83 6 . 79 28 pets .94 .94 .94 .93 .94 .94 .94 .94 .94 .94 235 .94 225 .93 167 .93 91 .94 47 .94 271 . 50 152 . 50 2 . 56 4 . 87 7 .93 1 . 50 0 organa .99 1.00 1.00 . 97 . 97 . 63 . 63 . 95 . 94 .99 590 .99 985 . 87 203 . 29 4 . 97 83 . 97 105 . 09 1096 . 09 12 . 09 0 . 09 0 . 09 1 . 09 35 blood .93 .94 .94 . 89 . 89 . 61 . 60 . 90 . 85 . 92 1160 . 92 634 . 86 377 . 87 341 . 92 453 . 92 600 . 15 102 . 23 237 . 12 0 . 12 224 . 13 79 . 16 89 SVHN .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 . 48 . 49 .95 .95 .95 29 .95 23 .94 151 . 93 131 .95 80 .95 64 . 10 55 . 19 2 . 10 0 . 10 0 . 10 80 . 10 24 medabs .61 .62 . 60 . 41 . 41 . 43 . 41 . 44 . 43 . 50 270 . 51 274 . 51 228 . 51 180 . 53 170 . 53 247 . 20 240 . 20 252 . 20 20 . 20 47 . 20 59 . 20 21 vicuna .86 .87 . 85 . 57 . 56 . 63 . 50 . 51 . 51 . 64 286 . 65 308 . 65 362 . 65 160 . 66 149 . 66 302 . 50 12 . 50 12 . 50 124 . 50 70 . 50 20 . 50 80 pTED .77 .75 .75 . 52 . 52 . 54 . 50 . 50 . 50 . 61 282 . 60 282 . 60 182 . 58 359 . 61 130 . 58 112 . 50 151 . 50 153 . 50 174 . 50 64 . 50 60 . 50 49 tgpt .97 .97 .96 . 92 . 91 . 92 . 89 . 93 . 91 . 78 126 . 77 155 . 78 123 . 81 332 . 80 239 . 78 132 . 58 91 . 75 103 . 59 94 . 48 51 . 85 99 . 51 93 pol .73 .74 . 70 . 71 . 71 . 72 . 70 . 71 . 71 . 60 72 . 55 92 . 60 63 . 57 51 . 57 91 . 56 111 . 54 72 . 53 97 . 57 106 . 58 110 . 51 39 . 51 66 liar .24 .24 .23 . 20 . 20 . 20 . 19 . 20 . 19 . 19 100 . 20 86 . 19 131 . 19 195 . 17 102 . 18 109 . 17 13 . 17 19 . 17 34 . 17 60 . 16 53 . 17 401 Avg. .80 .79 .79 . 72 . 72 . 69 . 67 . 70 . 70 . 66 157 . 64 . 67 178 . 47 . 64 137 . 44 . 63 128 . 58 . 67 172 . 87 . 67 157 . 71 . 45 125 . 27 . 45 96 . 62 . 47 75 . 56 . 46 60.04 . 46 70.04 . 45 73 . 07 Std. . 20 . 20 . 20 . 23 . 23 . 22 . 21 . 23 . 23 . 22 213 . 80 . 21 201 . 69 . 22 144 . 81 . 22 139 . 83 . 22 179 . 99 . 22 167 . 68 .24 181 . 00 . 23 89 . 89 . 25 82 . 83 . 24 56 . 47 . 25 73 . 60 . 23 78 . 98 Rank 3 . 3 9 . 9 3 . 6 9 . 9 3 . 9 9 . 9 8 . 0 9 . 9 7 . 9 9 . 9 7 . 6 9 . 9 9 . 9 9 . 9 8 . 9 9 . 9 9 . 4 9 . 9 10 . 9 11 . 2 9 . 9 9 . 1 12 . 2 9 . 7 12 . 1 10 . 5 10 . 7 9 . 2 10 . 5 9 . 8 16 . 8 12 . 2 17 . 1 12 . 0 16 . 3 13 . 3 17 . 2 15 . 2 17 . 1 14 . 9 17 . 6 15 . 2 59 Table 29 : Average Balanced Accuracy for RandomPivotForest with 100 PivotTree c lassifiers as estimators, and 10% of the training set is used to train each estimator, against baselines, for each dataset . When the splitting stump forest is adopted, subscripts indicate the average number of stumps ± std. dev. Best results in bold , second best in italics . dataset xgb lgbm catb rdt rodt rpt ropt rppt roppt rdt s rodt s rpt s ropt s rppt s roppt s rdt b rodt b rpt b ropt b rppt b roppt b ion .91 .94 .94 . 87 . 88 . 87 . 89 . 82 . 82 . 83 46 . 83 41 . 87 37 . 86 36 . 90 72 . 89 103 . 50 17 . 50 74 . 70 54 . 78 23 . 64 26 . 58 40 fire .98 .98 .99 . 95 . 95 . 93 . 91 . 93 . 93 . 56 14 . 68 53 . 69 80 . 72 83 . 74 83 . 70 109 . 87 98 . 89 101 . 70 107 . 79 99 . 76 109 . 70 73 yeast . 46 .49 .52 . 30 . 25 . 30 . 26 . 29 . 28 . 25 29 . 30 51 . 27 40 . 33 45 . 26 59 . 28 62 . 12 21 . 10 4 . 10 11 . 13 36 . 11 5 . 11 91 magic .84 .86 .84 . 64 . 64 . 64 . 63 . 63 . 63 . 68 53 . 70 57 . 70 44 . 70 67 . 73 267 . 70 68 . 52 34 . 53 28 . 62 10 . 61 25 . 50 91 . 50 30 sonar . 78 .87 .84 . 76 . 75 . 79 . 65 . 83 . 80 . 62 102 . 60 123 . 65 53 . 64 10 . 59 8 . 60 14 . 73 100 . 62 76 . 62 83 . 61 10 . 60 151 . 57 14 compas .56 .55 .55 . 43 . 43 . 44 . 44 . 43 . 43 . 42 7 . 45 33 . 42 40 . 43 57 . 43 58 . 44 56 . 33 36 . 33 70 . 33 96 . 33 89 . 33 71 . 33 85 house .87 .87 .87 . 73 . 73 . 72 . 65 . 66 . 66 .75 179 .75 223 . 71 187 . 70 209 . 69 415 . 71 455 . 50 158 . 50 155 . 51 9 . 50 109 . 50 115 . 50 123 german . 66 .70 .68 . 50 . 50 . 50 . 50 . 50 . 50 . 55 7 . 63 15 . 63 42 . 62 39 . 62 37 . 63 21 . 50 10 . 50 10 . 50 8 . 50 11 . 50 2 . 50 41 spamb .94 .95 .95 . 86 . 86 . 87 . 85 . 84 . 83 . 78 56 . 79 99 . 77 116 . 77 181 . 79 108 . 80 175 . 67 73 . 74 98 . 72 86 . 55 116 . 69 123 . 69 99 norm .97 .98 .97 .97 .97 .98 .97 .98 .98 . 81 222 . 81 49 . 81 71 . 82 45 . 81 63 . 81 68 . 95 226 .97 118 .97 100 .98 87 .98 95 .98 106 lrs . 43 .63 .50 . 42 . 41 . 40 . 39 . 41 . 42 . 25 252 . 25 237 . 21 149 . 21 137 . 22 116 . 22 56 . 13 280 . 14 186 . 15 158 . 15 165 . 12 93 . 12 172 vert .82 . 80 .81 . 64 . 63 . 66 . 63 . 72 . 72 . 58 21 . 50 66 . 50 68 . 54 67 . 54 151 . 50 46 . 50 75 . 50 86 . 46 106 . 49 102 . 51 152 . 60 111 iris .97 1.00 1.00 1.00 .97 . 95 1.00 1.00 1.00 . 77 21 . 67 113 . 67 38 . 67 35 . 72 59 . 70 19 . 69 123 . 54 53 . 85 38 . 87 36 . 68 20 . 87 19 wine .99 .99 .99 . 95 . 96 .97 . 96 .97 . 96 . 87 89 . 88 88 . 88 129 . 87 133 . 87 48 . 89 47 . 55 82 . 52 94 . 53 3 . 50 133 . 50 84 . 50 1 diva .88 .90 . 87 . 60 . 60 . 56 . 53 . 52 . 50 . 71 34 . 71 53 . 69 74 . 69 69 . 71 133 . 72 162 . 50 34 . 50 34 . 50 75 . 50 54 . 50 40 . 50 46 breast .98 . 95 .98 . 95 . 94 . 94 . 93 . 94 . 94 . 94 53 . 95 64 . 93 92 . 94 102 .96 22 . 94 19 . 92 62 . 86 12 . 91 72 . 92 89 . 89 100 . 89 95 steel . 74 .82 .77 . 41 . 40 . 39 . 38 . 43 . 47 . 43 141 . 46 133 . 46 70 . 45 75 . 48 270 . 51 205 . 18 68 . 14 11 . 18 6 . 18 2 . 12 11 . 25 8 ecoli . 69 .70 .76 . 36 . 36 . 36 . 37 . 38 . 38 . 36 20 . 35 105 . 34 158 . 31 140 . 33 141 . 37 12 . 21 19 . 26 37 . 26 133 . 25 22 . 23 13 . 20 88 heloc .71 .71 .71 . 69 . 69 .70 .70 .70 .70 . 69 50 .70 31 . 69 91 . 69 133 . 69 113 . 69 92 . 52 75 . 61 134 . 66 102 . 53 34 . 49 127 . 51 92 page . 88 .93 . 89 . 74 . 71 . 78 . 74 . 73 . 73 . 74 134 . 82 130 . 79 101 . 84 92 .90 143 . 89 149 . 50 0 . 50 0 . 53 101 . 51 53 . 50 19 . 50 8 yoga . 68 .77 .79 . 61 . 61 . 64 . 65 . 67 . 68 . 63 144 . 62 155 . 62 99 . 66 69 . 67 123 . 67 139 . 50 13 . 50 51 . 52 92 . 51 14 . 50 70 . 51 23 star . 89 .93 .90 . 66 . 66 . 81 . 81 . 68 . 67 . 68 235 . 70 224 . 70 114 . 69 104 . 73 284 . 70 217 . 66 100 . 66 100 . 33 0 . 33 111 . 33 4 . 33 0 chlorine . 18 . 12 . 17 . 29 . 30 . 28 . 30 .31 . 30 . 29 98 . 28 172 . 30 43 . 30 38 . 26 645 . 27 279 .33 13 .33 20 .33 21 . 29 7 .33 150 .33 125 kitchen . 67 .70 .71 . 64 . 64 . 69 . 67 . 63 . 61 . 65 134 . 65 86 . 66 109 . 64 101 . 65 145 . 62 145 . 52 96 . 64 166 . 47 35 . 47 37 . 59 99 . 44 113 share .54 .54 .54 . 50 . 50 . 50 . 50 . 50 . 50 . 50 6 .52 70 . 47 257 . 51 159 . 51 29 . 51 76 . 50 5 . 50 6 . 50 43 .52 6 . 50 52 . 50 65 devices . 52 .58 .54 . 36 . 36 . 35 . 36 . 35 . 34 . 33 701 . 33 718 . 32 246 . 33 320 . 34 236 . 33 181 . 21 214 . 21 221 . 21 77 . 19 78 . 13 92 . 15 5 gun . 68 . 63 .94 .82 . 80 . 72 . 70 . 74 . 76 . 66 60 . 65 61 . 68 58 . 63 53 . 63 16 . 67 15 . 51 49 . 48 77 . 74 66 . 72 70 . 51 19 . 51 19 worms . 56 .61 . 55 . 48 . 55 . 55 . 59 . 58 . 57 . 52 94 . 46 12 . 53 19 . 52 89 . 43 112 . 52 168 . 49 35 .62 12 . 53 107 . 58 12 . 55 42 . 50 171 ecg . 48 .53 .51 . 39 . 39 . 40 . 39 . 39 . 39 . 48 215 . 48 186 . 41 124 . 44 93 . 45 95 . 46 113 . 33 97 . 20 166 . 24 88 . 26 93 . 30 108 . 37 105 wafer . 91 .98 .97 . 74 . 75 . 88 . 87 . 95 . 96 . 80 46 . 81 93 . 71 44 . 78 41 . 86 516 . 89 562 . 50 4 . 49 5 . 50 0 . 55 16 . 50 105 . 50 99 oral .88 .88 .88 .85 . 84 . 82 . 79 . 82 . 84 . 70 54 . 69 264 . 64 177 . 79 158 . 74 251 . 75 175 . 28 105 . 26 128 . 46 112 . 42 93 . 27 88 . 36 109 MNIST .99 .99 .99 .99 .99 .99 .99 .99 .99 .99 124 .99 130 . 50 35 . 50 34 .99 42 .79 11 . 10 32 . 20 130 . 10 0 . 10 0 . 12 18 . 10 0 cifar10 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .94 74 .94 72 . 60 62 . 64 53 .94 36 .94 49 . 07 95 . 11 51 . 10 0 . 10 0 . 09 44 . 15 61 catsdogs .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 89 .95 133 .95 91 .95 32 .95 304 .95 107 . 50 142 . 50 107 .95 100 .95 100 .94 109 . 80 489 birds .83 .84 .84 . 81 . 81 . 81 . 79 . 82 . 82 . 81 28 . 81 21 . 79 81 . 81 55 . 82 38 . 82 163 . 77 118 . 76 68 . 74 39 . 57 2 . 79 29 . 78 30 pets .94 .94 .94 .94 .94 .94 .94 .94 .94 .94 6 .94 47 .93 90 .93 56 .94 89 .94 254 . 50 0 . 50 0 . 62 1 . 41 1 . 52 6 . 50 7 organa .99 1.00 1.00 . 94 . 95 . 63 . 63 . 96 . 96 .99 849 .99 496 . 36 10 . 42 8 . 97 85 . 98 111 . 09 21 . 09 913 . 09 0 . 09 0 . 09 8 . 08 21 blood .93 .94 .94 . 87 . 87 . 69 . 63 . 90 . 89 . 92 739 . 92 509 . 55 59 . 72 51 . 92 310 . 92 367 . 12 134 . 11 145 . 08 7 . 08 4 . 16 111 . 19 148 SVHN .95 .95 .95 .95 .95 . 67 . 68 .95 .94 .95 29 .95 28 . 39 14 . 23 7 .95 68 .95 64 . 19 530 . 19 521 . 19 13 . 11 9 . 10 35 . 16 5 medabs .61 .62 . 60 . 40 . 40 . 42 . 41 . 44 . 43 . 51 230 . 52 228 . 50 154 . 52 182 . 52 167 . 54 255 . 20 199 . 20 200 . 20 0 . 20 23 . 20 19 . 20 26 vicuna . 84 .87 .85 . 50 . 50 . 61 . 52 . 51 . 50 . 65 169 . 65 166 . 65 190 . 64 137 . 66 231 . 68 269 . 50 82 . 50 82 . 50 256 . 50 70 . 50 22 . 50 21 pTED .75 .75 .73 . 50 . 50 . 54 . 50 . 51 . 50 . 59 155 . 58 227 . 58 154 . 58 195 . 61 232 . 58 138 . 50 63 . 50 66 . 50 202 . 50 19 . 50 62 . 50 68 tgpt .96 .97 .96 . 90 . 90 . 91 . 90 . 91 . 90 . 78 152 . 76 366 . 80 269 . 77 236 . 78 236 . 79 251 . 66 100 . 60 100 . 51 132 . 51 111 . 44 128 . 42 251 pol . 69 .74 .70 .70 . 68 .70 . 66 . 69 . 69 . 54 38 . 55 36 . 60 52 . 59 48 . 59 89 . 58 41 . 50 115 . 50 58 . 54 89 . 53 71 . 52 111 . 52 41 liar .23 .24 .23 . 17 . 17 . 20 . 20 . 19 . 19 . 19 151 . 19 159 . 18 68 . 20 156 . 19 55 . 19 99 . 17 27 . 17 7 . 17 87 . 17 66 . 17 60 . 18 54 Avg. .77 .79 .79 . 68 . 68 . 68 . 66 . 69 . 69 . 66 136 . 67 . 66 142 . 73 . 60 95 . 53 . 61 94 . 00 . 67 151 . 11 . 67 137 . 49 . 45 88 . 44 . 45 106 . 24 . 46 65.00 . 45 51.29 . 44 67 . 51 . 44 75 . 51 Std. . 21 . 20 . 20 .23 .23 . 22 . 22 . 23 . 23 . 22 183 . 79 . 21 142 . 60 . 20 63 . 59 . 20 66 . 77 . 22 134 . 26 . 21 117 . 96 . 23 93 . 04 . 22 151 . 27 . 24 58 . 37 . 24 44 . 49 . 24 46 . 50 . 22 83 . 87 Rank 4 . 2 5 . 0 3 . 0 5 . 0 3 . 3 5 . 0 9 . 7 5 . 0 10 . 1 5 . 0 8 . 5 5 . 0 9 . 6 5 . 0 8 . 4 5 . 0 9 . 0 5 . 0 10 . 7 15 . 2 10 . 0 14 . 2 12 . 1 14 . 7 11 . 2 15 . 2 9 . 7 13 . 8 9 . 5 14 . 1 17 . 3 16 . 5 17 . 1 15 . 7 16 . 4 16 . 6 16 . 4 17 . 6 17 . 4 16 . 2 17 . 4 16 . 1 60 Table 30: Average Balanced Accuracy ± std. dev. for PivotTree classifiers and selectors combined with dt in the unconstrained setting, alongside baselines and competing methods, with respect to different distance measures. Subscripts denote the average number of pivots ± standard deviation (rounded up to nearest integer). Best results are shown in bold, and second-best results in italics. model tabular images time-series text all euclidean ptc Z .73 11 ±.20 3 .66 11 ±.20 4 .59 9 ±.21 3 .59 13 ±.21 2 .67 11 ±.20 3 pptc Z .72 14 ±.18 4 .70 11 ±.18 5 .57 12 ±.21 6 .59 12 ±.20 3 .67 13 ±.19 5 optc Z .68 17 ±.19 6 .65 15 ±.19 6 .57 12 ±.21 6 .56 23 ±.20 4 .63 16 ±.20 6 opptc Z .73 13 ±.18 5 .71 12 ±.19 6 .55 11 ±.20 7 .55 14 ±.20 4 .66 12 ±.20 5 pts Z .73 39 ±.18 19 .66 50 ±.20 21 .59 35 ±.21 31 .59 61 ±.21 32 .67 43 ±.20 25 ppts Z .71 37 ±.18 24 .67 55 ±.21 39 .59 37 ±.20 36 .60 51 ±.21 45 .66 43 ±.20 33 opts Z .71 50 ±.19 30 .65 66 ±.20 36 .58 47 ±.19 48 .58 96 ±.21 68 .65 59 ±.20 43 oppts Z .72 46 ±.20 31 .66 69 ±.20 49 .55 40 ±.20 34 .57 76 ±.19 60 .65 53 ±.20 41 cosine ptc Z .75 11 ±.18 3 .66 11 ±.20 4 .61 10 ±.19 4 .60 12 ±.21 2 .68 11 ±.20 3 pptc Z .75 12 ±.17 5 .85 15 ±.12 4 .60 17 ±.20 7 .59 14 ±.22 5 .71 14 ±.19 6 optc Z .71 17 ±.20 5 .66 16 ±.20 5 .61 13 ±.20 5 .58 20 ±.21 5 .66 16 ±.20 5 opptc Z .74 13 ±.18 5 .79 15 ±.13 5 .57 15 ±.21 8 .59 11 ±.21 4 .69 14 ±.19 6 pts Z .75 42 ±.18 23 .66 51 ±.20 24 .61 36 ±.20 31 .61 62 ±.21 34 .68 45 ±.20 27 ppts Z .73 34 ±.20 31 .66 77 ±.20 55 .60 46 ±.19 36 .60 54 ±.22 45 .67 48 ±.20 42 opts Z .74 50 ±.19 26 .66 69 ±.20 36 .59 43 ±.19 33 .60 87 ±.21 63 .67 57 ±.20 38 oppts Z .72 51 ±.18 42 .66 111 ±.20 72 .59 61 ±.19 56 .59 67 ±.21 52 .66 67 ±.19 56 manhattan ptc Z .72 12 ±.19 3 .66 10 ±.20 3 .58 9 ±.21 4 .58 13 ±.20 2 .66 11 ±.20 3 pptc Z .74 13 ±.18 5 .71 12 ±.19 6 .60 14 ±.21 6 .58 12 ±.21 3 .68 13 ±.20 5 optc Z .70 16 ±.20 5 .66 16 ±.20 6 .58 15 ±.20 6 .55 22 ±.19 4 .64 17 ±.20 6 opptc Z .74 14 ±.17 4 .70 12 ±.19 4 .60 12 ±.21 6 .57 13 ±.20 2 .68 13 ±.20 4 pts Z .73 41 ±.19 20 .66 48 ±.20 25 .58 36 ±.21 31 .59 63 ±.20 38 .67 44 ±.20 27 ppts Z .73 35 ±.20 24 .67 54 ±.21 38 .60 37 ±.19 27 .59 50 ±.21 35 .67 42 ±.20 29 opts Z .73 49 ±.19 21 .67 70 ±.20 37 .60 48 ±.20 37 .56 88 ±.19 66 .67 58 ±.20 38 oppts Z .72 51 ±.18 31 .67 74 ±.21 39 .60 46 ±.18 36 .56 66 ±.20 43 .66 56 ±.19 36 61 Table 31: Average Balanced Accuracy ± std. dev. for RandomPiv- otForest with 100 PivotTree estimators, where each estimator is trained on 10% of the training set. Results are reported for different distance measures. Best results are shown in bold, and second-best results in italics. model tabular images time-series text all euclidean rpt .68± .23 .83± .14.58± .20.56± .24 .67± .22 rppt .69± .23 .92± .06 .59± .20.54± .24 .69± .23 ropt .67± .24 .82± .15 .59± .19.53± .24 .66± .23 roppt .68± .23 .92± .06 .59± .21.54± .24 .69± .24 cosine rpt.67± .23 .84± .13.58± .20 .58± .24 .67± .22 rppt .67± .23 .93± .05.57± .20.56± .24 .69± .24 ropt .66± .23 .84± .13 .59± .20.55± .24 .66± .23 roppt .66± .23 .93± .06.58± .21.55± .24 .68± .24 manhattan rpt .69± .23 .83± .14.58± .20.55± .24 .68± .22 rppt .69± .23 .91± .06.58± .20.54± .24 .69± .23 ropt .67± .24 .83± .13 .59± .20.53± .24 .66± .23 roppt .69± .23 .91± .06.58± .20.53± .25 .69± .23 62