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Visual Credit Audit for Multimodal Spatial Reasoning
Feixiang Liu, Qiang Qiu, Lanbo Sun, Nan Wei, Huawei Shen, Xueqi Cheng
Intelligence
Status: succeeded | Model: Gemma-4-26B-A4B | Prompt: intel-v1 | Confidence: 92%
Last extracted: 8/1/2026, 1:23:12 AM
Summary
The paper introduces Visual Credit Audit (VCA), a method to decompose multimodal large language model (MLLM) performance in spatial reasoning into correctness, additional image support, and relation-consistent response. VCA separates whether an image provides more support for a model's decision than text-only or blank controls (dependence) and whether the model responds to relation-specific visual evidence. Results show that 12.73-26.25% of decisions are correct yet uncredited, and image permutation significantly reduces dependence-credited correctness.
Entities (10)
Relation Signals (7)
Visual Credit Audit → appliedto → VSR
confidence 95% · Across four open MLLMs and two spatial benchmarks... VSR... GSR-COCO
Visual Credit Audit → appliedto → GSR-COCO
confidence 95% · On GSR-COCO, Qwen reaches 90.91 original-image accuracy
Visual Credit Audit → identifies → Correct-but-uncredited
confidence 95% · 12.73-26.25% of decisions are correct yet uncredited.
Visual Credit Audit → measures → Dependence-Credited Correctness
confidence 95% · Applying labels yields dependence-credited correctness (D-CC)... VCA thereby decomposes benchmark success into correctness, additional image support, and relation-consistent response.
Visual Credit Audit → evaluates → LLaVa
confidence 90% · For LLaVA, the corresponding values are 81.93 and 55.68.
Visual Credit Audit → evaluates → Qwen
confidence 90% · Across four open MLLMs... Qwen reaches 90.91 original-image accuracy
Visual Credit Audit → uses → Semantic Relation Contrast
confidence 90% · Semantic Relation Contrast (SRC) scores all statements without changing the image.
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Abstract
Abstract:Closed yes/no spatial benchmarks can reward a correct answer even when the image adds little support beyond no-image contexts. Under a fixed forced-choice interface, Visual Credit Audit (VCA) separates two estimands: whether the benchmark image gives the model's declared decision more support than text-only and blank controls, and whether the model responds to relation-specific visual evidence. The first audit is training- and label-free and does not require an answer flip. Applying labels yields dependence-credited correctness (D-CC); on correct items, it equals same-control gold-aligned positive gain, while prediction alignment extends the audit to errors. Across four open MLLMs and two spatial benchmarks, 12.73-26.25% of decisions are correct yet uncredited. Matched same-split image permutation reduces D-CC by 21.25-47.80 points, with every paired 95% interval above zero. Fixed-pixel relation contrasts and a 3x3 evidence-source factorial show why null controls cannot identify relation response. Among controlled correct-but-uncredited agreement decisions, response to relation reversal spans 81.57-100.00%, while 32.11% pooled change answer. Independently audited outcomes on 108 geometry-compatible edits provide a bounded natural-image correspondence check. VCA thereby decomposes benchmark success into correctness, additional image support, and relation-consistent response.
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- Source: https://arxiv.org/abs/2607.27069v2
- Canonical: https://arxiv.org/abs/2607.27069v2
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Visual Credit Audit for Multimodal Spatial Reasoning Feixiang Liu1,2, Qiang Qiu1, Lanbo Sun1,2, Nan Wei1, Huawei Shen1, Xueqi Cheng1 Abstract Closed yes/no spatial benchmarks can reward a correct answer even when the image adds little support beyond no-image contexts. Under a fixed forced-choice interface, Visual Credit Audit (VCA) separates two estimands: whether the benchmark image gives the model’s declared decision more support than text-only and blank controls, and whether the model responds to relation-specific visual evidence. The first audit is training- and label-free and does not require an answer flip. Applying labels yields dependence-credited correctness (D-C); on correct items, it equals same-control gold-aligned positive gain, while prediction alignment extends the audit to errors. Across four open MLLMs and two spatial benchmarks, 12.73–26.25% of decisions are correct yet uncredited. Matched same-split image permutation reduces D-C by 21.25–47.80 points, with every paired 95% interval above zero. Fixed-pixel relation contrasts and a 3×33×3 evidence-source factorial show why null controls cannot identify relation response. Among controlled correct-but-uncredited agreement decisions, response to relation reversal spans 81.57–100.00%, while 32.11% pooled change answer. Independently audited outcomes on 108 geometry-compatible edits provide a bounded natural-image correspondence check. VCA thereby decomposes benchmark success into correctness, additional image support, and relation-consistent response. Code: https://github.com/SouthWinter/VCA Introduction Spatial reasoning is a basic capability for multimodal systems that must understand where objects are and how they relate. Modern MLLMs combine large-scale visual-language pretraining with strong instruction-following priors (Bai et al. 2023; Chen et al. 2024b; Bai and others 2025; Wang et al. 2025; Li et al. 2024a), and spatial benchmarks such as VSR and WhatsUp evaluate whether they can answer relation questions involving left/right, above/below, and other reference frames (Liu et al. 2023a; Kamath et al. 2023; Rajabi and Kosecka 2024). Yet correctness on a closed yes/no question is not the same as incremental visual support. A model can answer “yes” to a plausible query such as “the TV is above the cat” because the text is familiar, the prompt format is biased, or the dataset contains strong object-relation priors. The answer is then correct even when no-image controls support the same decision at least as strongly. This ambiguity is visible in our audit results. On GSR-COCO, Qwen reaches 90.91 original-image accuracy, but only 78.18 of all examples are both correct and more strongly supported by the image than by text-only or blank controls. For LLaVA, the corresponding values are 81.93 and 55.68. These gaps remain after removing the requirement that a no-image context must favor the opposite answer. Moreover, when the original decision direction is held fixed, a deterministic same-split image permutation reduces D-C by 21.25–47.80 points across all eight runs, with every paired interval above zero. The core issue is therefore not simply low spatial accuracy; it is success without benchmark-image support advantage under the prespecified controls. This distinction changes benchmark interpretation. Models with similar accuracy can differ in support-qualified performance, and aggregate success can hide whether improvements arise from image-conditioned evidence or from stronger answer priors. A decision-level audit makes these differences measurable without retraining the evaluated model. It also exposes a second distinction: no marginal image advantage does not by itself imply no visual response. When text and image redundantly support the same answer, removing the image can preserve support even though reversing its relation changes the model’s score. Null controls and relation-reversed images therefore answer different identification questions. Existing work exposes adjacent issues but does not directly assign credit to a fixed spatial decision. VQA debiasing and counterfactual evaluation reduce language priors or test consistency under changed conditions (Zhang et al. 2016; Agrawal et al. 2018; Niu et al. 2021; Zhang et al. 2024; Li et al. 2024b). Spatial-reasoning methods improve the underlying model with specialized data, grounded representations, 3D priors, or visual-textual reasoning (Chen et al. 2024a; Ma et al. 2024; Liang et al. 2025; Xu et al. 2025). Hallucination and contrastive-decoding methods reduce image-inconsistent outputs (Rohrbach et al. 2018; Li et al. 2023; Leng et al. 2024; Yin et al. 2025). These lines are complementary, but they do not ask whether a particular forced-choice spatial decision receives greater support from its image than from matched no-image contexts while remaining relation-consistent on fixed pixels. We use visual credit as shorthand for this operational support audit, not for internal causal credit assignment. Credit is assigned to a specified decision–context contrast, not to a latent mechanism or unconstrained generation behavior. It asks two distinct questions. First, does the original image increase support for the model’s own decision relative to no-image controls? Second, does the same scoring rule distinguish the queried relation from false alternatives on fixed pixels? Conflating these conditions is misleading: a decision may be image-sensitive but relation-inconsistent, or relation-consistent yet lack a relative image-support advantage. VCA’s methodological contribution is a two-estimand identification framework, not a new name for a correct-only gain. Its support axis extends the same dual-control event label-free over every declared decision, preserving support-advantaged errors and yielding a complete accuracy–credit decomposition once labels are applied. Its relation axis addresses a different question that null inputs cannot identify: whether fixed-pixel relation separation and controlled relation reversal change the model’s evidence. Matched image permutation calibrates the headline D-C/C-U decomposition; audited edits provide bounded natural-image correspondence. Our contributions are: • We introduce a label-free, decision-level support audit whose correct-item restriction exactly recovers same-control gold-aligned gain, while its all-decision form retains credited errors and induces a complete correctness–credit decomposition. • We separate marginal image support from relation response, establish their null-control identification boundary, and add fixed-pixel semantic contrasts plus the missing relation-opposite factorial intervention. • Across four MLLMs, two benchmarks, 1,800 factorial inputs per model, and 108 independently audited edits, matched calibration and controlled response tests expose distinct correct-but-uncredited behaviors. Related Work Shortcut Learning and Counterfactual VQA Visual question answering made image-conditioned reasoning measurable at scale, but also revealed that correct answers can follow answer priors, dataset imbalance, and question-only correlations rather than visual evidence (Goyal et al. 2017; Zhang et al. 2016; Agrawal et al. 2018). Debiasing, causal, and counterfactual VQA methods weaken language-prior branches, change the training distribution, estimate direct and indirect effects, or perturb image-question conditions to test evidence sensitivity (Niu et al. 2021; Zhang et al. 2024; Li et al. 2024b). These works establish the central concern behind VCA: accuracy is not enough to show evidence use. VCA keeps the yes/no item fixed and asks whether its original image gives the model’s spatial decision more support than matched contexts without sufficient visual evidence. Compositional and Spatial Relation Grounding Compositional vision-language evaluation tests whether models bind objects, attributes, relations, commonsense, and word order rather than matching coarse image-text statistics (Johnson et al. 2017; Thrush et al. 2022). Spatial-relation benchmarks sharpen this problem by isolating relation words, reference frames, and left/right or above/below distinctions (Liu et al. 2023a; Kamath et al. 2023; Rajabi and Kosecka 2024). Recent methods improve spatial ability through specialized data, grounded representations, 3D priors, visual-textual reasoning, or explicit spatial prompting (Chen et al. 2024a; Ogezi and Shi 2025; Ma et al. 2024; Liang et al. 2025; Xu et al. 2025). These efforts primarily ask whether a model becomes more accurate or consistent on spatial tasks. VCA instead measures whether the observed success is still supported when matched probes remove or replace the relevant visual evidence, rather than by language priors or image-insensitive behavior. Decision-Level Visual Credit Auditing The closest methodological neighbors are hallucination mitigation and contrastive visual inference. Object hallucination work evaluates whether generated descriptions or yes/no probes introduce content not supported by the image (Rohrbach et al. 2018; Li et al. 2023), and mitigation methods use robust instruction tuning, factual feedback, or contrastive decoding to reduce unsupported outputs (Liu et al. 2023b; Sun et al. 2023; Leng et al. 2024; Yin et al. 2025). Attribution and modality-use metrics ask related but distinct questions. Perceptual Score measures accuracy loss under modality permutation (Gat et al. 2021); M-SHAP aggregates unsigned token-level Shapley contributions (Parcalabescu and Frank 2023); and sufficiency, comprehensiveness, and FPVG evaluate retained or removed evidence (DeYoung et al. 2020; Reich et al. 2023). Benchmark-level audits compare original and no-image accuracy: modality-importance scoring diagnoses video-QA bias (Park et al. 2025), Fu et al. derive label-dependent per-instance modality gain from null-image controls and an aggregate Visual Dependence (Fu et al. 2026), phrasing-controlled tests expose textual-prior reliance (Singla et al. 2026), and Visual Dependency Index measures aggregate loss under question-agnostic image descriptions (Chen et al. 2026). Korkut et al. combine confidence-weighted blind correctness and gold-answer loss reduction into a continuous per-question Shortcut Score for benchmark filtering (Korkut et al. 2026). VisNec uses gold-response loss reduction under blind visual-token attention for data selection (Dong et al. 2026). Visual-degradation audits expose support weakening or invariant answers (Lan et al. 2026), while ViewDiag tests spatial evidence insensitivity across viewpoints (Bhat and Yamasaki 2026). Multimodal interaction decompositions explicitly model redundancy and synergy (Yu et al. 2024), while conflicting-text evaluations test whether vision can override textual misinformation (Zhang et al. 2026). These results motivate separating marginal credit from counterfactual source response rather than treating either as a proxy for the other. On correct items, VCA’s dependence event intentionally reduces exactly to a gold-aligned positive gain under the same controls; the contribution is not a different correct-only formula. VCA instead completes this event without labels over every declared decision, retaining support-advantaged errors, and places the resulting support decomposition beside a separately identified relation-response axis. Aggregate drops cannot assign an event to each decision, gold-only gains cannot audit errors, and flip-only rules conflate reduced support with evidence for the opposite answer. Fixed multi-verbalizer and pair-centered checks test transport across answer surfaces rather than assuming it. This relative support audit is complementary to probabilistic calibration, which measures confidence reliability (Naeini et al. 2015; Guo et al. 2017). Figure 1: VCA separates relative image support from image–relation interaction. The support audit compares original-image support with text-only and blank controls without requiring either control to favor the opposite answer. Fixed-image SRC contrasts true and false relations; PairCredit tests whether the original separation exceeds both no-image separations, while Joint adds absolute relation consistency and paired dependence. Matched permutation calibrates D-C/C-U; erasures and prompt variants are diagnostics. Method Problem Setup and Two-Axis Audit Each sample is a binary spatial query (I,q,y)(I,q,y), where I is an image, q asks about a spatial relation, and y∈yes,noy∈\yes,no\ is used only for offline correctness. VCA fixes a binary answer interface, freezes the MLLM, and caches literal yes/no continuation margins under matched contexts. It separates two conditions that a spatial answer should satisfy. Relative image dependence asks whether the original image provides more support for that interface decision than no-image controls. Relation consistency asks whether the same image and object pair support the true relation over false alternatives. The first condition is prediction-aligned and benchmark-label-free; the second is an offline semantic check using the benchmark’s paired relation statements. Figure 1 summarizes this separation. Here “credit” denotes an operational, decision-level within-model audit; pixel-level causal attribution lies outside this protocol. Prediction-Aligned Image Support Let ℓθ(a∣c,q) _θ(a c,q) be the frozen MLLM’s negative log-likelihood for answer a under context c. The yes margin mc=ℓθ(no∣c,q)−ℓθ(yes∣c,q)m_c= _θ(no c,q)- _θ(yes c,q) is positive when the model prefers “yes.” We record its original prediction direction di=+1d_i=+1 if mi,o≥0m_i,o≥ 0 and di=−1d_i=-1 otherwise, and define prediction-aligned support ri,c=dimi,cr_i,c=d_im_i,c. Thus larger ri,cr_i,c means stronger support for the model’s original decision, whether or not that decision is correct. The primary no-image controls are text-only (t) and blank (b). We define Giimg=ri,o−max(ri,t,ri,b),Di=Giimg>0.G_i^img=r_i,o- (r_i,t,r_i,b), D_i= 1\G_i^img>0\. (1) We call GiimgG_i^img the VCA dependence gap. The zero threshold marks the estimand boundary for additional support over both controls; it is neither a significance test nor a fitted calibration cutoff. Throughout, “dependence” denotes this control-relative support advantage, not answer-level necessity. Crucially, it does not require missing evidence to make the model choose the opposite binary answer. After the audit, the benchmark label gives κi=y^i=yi _i= 1\ y_i=y_i\ and the dependence-credited correct rate D-C=N−1∑iDiκi.D -C=N^-1 _iD_i _i. (2) Because DiD_i is assigned before labels are consulted, it induces a complete four-cell decomposition: Acc =E[κD]+E[κ(1−D)], =E[κ D]+E[κ(1-D)], (3) Dep =E[κD]+E[(1−κ)D], =E[κ D]+E[(1-κ)D], 1 1 =E[κD]+E[κ(1−D)] =E[κ D]+E[κ(1-D)] +E[(1−κ)D]+E[(1−κ)(1−D)]. +E[(1-κ)D]+E[(1-κ)(1-D)]. The first cell is D-C and the second is correct-but-uncredited (C-U). The third retains support-advantaged errors, which a correct-only gain omits; the fourth contains errors without control-relative image advantage. Thus one prespecified event audits both sides of correctness rather than changing its meaning after observing the label. We also report credited precision among Di=1D_i=1 decisions. A stricter isolation diagnostic additionally requires ri,t<0r_i,t<0 and ri,b<0r_i,b<0; it is retained for sensitivity analysis, not used as the primary definition. Separately, decision survival records whether the original binary answer persists under each no-image control; this distinguishes lost support from answer-level necessity. Properties of the raw audit. Within a fixed binary answer interface, prediction alignment is formally sign-symmetric: exchanging the names of its two answer tokens flips both the margin and did_i, leaving every ri,cr_i,c and GiimgG_i^img unchanged. This algebraic property does not assert invariance to a different verbalizer; we test that separately with full True/False scoring. The audit therefore asks a relative question about original-image support, rather than whether “yes” or “no” has a larger absolute logit. Finally, DiD_i is deliberately independent of the benchmark label. This separates three outcomes that accuracy alone conflates: a correct support-advantaged answer, a correct answer no better supported by the image than by no-image controls, and a support-advantaged error. Let si∈−1,+1s_i∈\-1,+1\ denote the gold-answer direction. Because κi=1 _i=1 implies di=sid_i=s_i, the correct-item restriction is exactly κiDi=κisimi,o>max(simi,t,simi,b). _iD_i= _i 1\! \s_im_i,o> (s_im_i,t,s_im_i,b) \. (4) Thus prediction alignment does not manufacture a new correct-only score. It extends the same order event label-free to all decisions, where support-advantaged errors remain visible rather than disappearing from a gold-only statistic. Accordingly, Dep is a prespecified within-item order event, not a probability of image use. Its matched calibration holds did_i fixed and replaces only the original image by a deterministic same-split permutation, directly testing whether a generic visual input reproduces the observed support advantage. Raw dependence gaps are interpreted within model because likelihood scales need not define a shared cross-model ability scale. Identification boundary of null controls. For fixed query text q, observations at a relation-supporting image I+I^+, text-only input ∅ , and blank image B do not constrain the response at an unobserved relation-opposite image I−I^-. Without assumptions linking these contexts, two frozen response functions can agree on m(I+,q),m(∅,q),m(B,q)\m(I^+,q),m( ,q),m(B,q)\ yet place m(I−,q)m(I^-,q) on opposite sides of m(I+,q)m(I^+,q). Therefore no null-control statistic, including GimgG img, identifies the sign of ΔV(q)=m(I+,q)−m(I−,q) _V(q)=m(I^+,q)-m(I^-,q). This boundary separates VCA’s marginal support estimand from the relation responsiveness tested by the controlled factorial below. Answer-interface protocol. The canonical Yes/No interface is prespecified and covers every item, so it supplies the complete dataset-level report without outcome-dependent interface selection. It is not a uniquely privileged semantic surface. The fixed Yes/No–True/False mean-margin ensemble is an aggregate sensitivity analysis, not a replacement definition. Where inverse relation statements exist, pair-centered semantic differencing removes offsets shared by the true and false queries and supplies the relation-specific interface check. Contexts and Diagnostic Interventions Text-only omits the image, while blank preserves the multimodal prompt format with a same-size fixed mid-gray canvas. These two no-image controls form the primary dependence audit. A deterministic same-split mismatch is useful for testing whether the signal merely detects a normal image rather than queried evidence. We run this natural unrelated-image check on all eight model–dataset combinations. Because object absence can itself make a binary spatial statement false, mismatch is reported separately and does not determine primary credit. Relation-erased (RelE) and irrelevant-erased (IrrE) views are artifact-sensitive box-erasure diagnostics; SRC supplies the pixel-preserving relation test. RelE removes the padded subject–object union, while IrrE checks preservation under nuisance removal. Figure 1 summarizes these roles; exact constructions are given in the supplement. Relation Consistency, Joint Audit, and Derived Interaction For an image I, object pair (u,v)(u,v), true relation r+r^+, and false alternatives ℛ−R^-, Semantic Relation Contrast (SRC) scores all statements without changing the image. A group is relation-consistent when the true statement is accepted and every false alternative is rejected. In each context c∈o,t,bc∈\o,t,b\, define the true–false separation and its image interaction as Hc H_c =mc(qr+)−maxr−mc(qr−), =m_c(q_r^+)- _r^-m_c(q_r^-), (5) Gint G^int =Ho−max(Ht,Hb). =H_o- (H_t,H_b). These contrasts define PairCorrect=Ho>0PairCorrect= 1\H_o>0\ and PairCredit=Gint>0PairCredit= 1\G^int>0\. Additive answer-surface offsets shared by the true and false queries cancel in HcH_c. PairCorrect ranks the pair, whereas strict ReloRel_o requires absolute acceptance and rejection. Let Pair D require Di=1D_i=1 for the true statement and every false alternative. VCA Joint is their transparent conjunction: Joint≡Relo∧PairD,Joint=1⟹Gint>0.Joint _o , =1 G^int>0. (6) The conjunction structurally excludes nonpositive interaction; its short proof is supplementary. We report GintG^int over all groups as the empirical interaction diagnostic beyond the Joint subset. SRC and Joint use no edited pixels or learned scorer. Experiments Model Data Acc Dep [CI] D-C [CI] C-U ΔDCCperm _ DCC perm [CI] Qwen VSR 79.42 71.10 [68.61,73.50] 58.53 [55.72,61.25] 20.90 27.30 [23.38,31.31] Qwen GSR-COCO 90.91 81.82 [79.20,84.32] 78.18 [75.45,80.91] 12.73 38.86 [35.23,42.50] InternVL VSR 58.69 57.01 [54.28,59.81] 39.55 [36.91,42.35] 19.14 26.02 [23.46,28.74] InternVL GSR-COCO 58.41 42.84 [39.66,46.14] 34.43 [31.25,37.61] 23.98 21.25 [18.64,23.86] LLaVA VSR 69.90 76.38 [73.90,78.70] 51.56 [48.68,54.36] 18.33 47.80 [44.92,50.76] LLaVA GSR-COCO 81.93 64.55 [61.14,67.73] 55.68 [52.39,58.98] 26.25 42.61 [39.77,45.34] Ministral VSR 64.45 63.33 [60.61,65.89] 48.52 [45.80,51.24] 15.93 34.43 [31.63,37.23] Ministral GSR-COCO 71.48 59.77 [56.48,62.95] 55.34 [52.05,58.75] 16.14 33.30 [30.57,36.02] Table 1: Canonical Yes/No relative-support results. D-C additionally requires correctness; C-U is Acc−-D-C. ΔDCCperm _ DCC perm is original D-C minus D-C after a prespecified same-split image permutation, retaining the original decision and correctness label. CIs are 95% paired-bootstrap intervals from 5,000 resamples. Figure 2: VCA decomposes correctness and control-relative support; same-image relation consistency and paired dependence combine into Joint. Experimental Setup Benchmarks and backbones. VSR (Liu et al. 2023a) is the primary benchmark because it has broad spatial-relation coverage and boxes for optional stress diagnostics. Its test split contributes 1,249 queries spanning nine relation types. We also evaluate GSR-COCO, a spatial yes/no split derived from COCO (Lin et al. 2014): 880 statements form 440 same-image true/false relation pairs over left/right and above/below. We evaluate four open 7B–14B autoregressive families: Qwen3-VL-8B-Instruct (Bai and others 2025), InternVL3.5-8B (Wang et al. 2025), LLaVA-OneVision-Qwen2-7B-OV (Li et al. 2024a), and Ministral-3-14B-Instruct-2512 (Mistral AI 2026), abbreviated as Qwen, InternVL, LLaVA, and Ministral. The primary audit requires no boxes; mismatch and box-based views remain supplementary diagnostics. Metrics and protocol. The primary support report contains Accuracy, the label-free dependence event rate (Dep), D-C, and C-U == Acc−-D-C. Dep is the event rate used to audit all decisions, not a separate ability score. On GSR-COCO, paired true/false statements add fixed-image relation consistency, PairCredit, and their stricter Joint audit; VSR supports the general image-support estimand but not this full relation axis. Canonical Yes/No is prespecified for complete rates. A fixed Yes/No–True/False ensemble and pair-centered semantic contrasts test answer surface transport. All headline values use raw margins from the frozen MLLM; no scorer is trained or selected, and the threshold Gimg>0G^img>0 is fixed before labels are consulted. Primary comparisons fix the query and rule while changing only the visual input. Strict isolation, mismatch, erasures, and direction splits are supplementary. Confidence intervals use 5,000 paired-bootstrap resamples; table values are percentages unless noted. Canonical Acc/Dep/D-C/C-U, matched D-C image-permutation excess, and controlled factorial contrasts form the headline report; other controls test robustness and edited outcomes test external correspondence. The submission materials include source code, exact prompt serialization, per-context losses and margins, deterministic data builders, factorial inputs, and deidentified edit audits. Main Results Image-support advantage. Table 1 shows that 12.73–26.25% of all decisions are correct but uncredited, with substantial variation across models and datasets. Dep can exceed accuracy because a support-advantaged decision may still be wrong; D-C requires both properties. The all-decision extension retains 3.64–24.82% support-advantaged errors across the eight runs, a cell absent from correct-only gain. Under the matched image permutation, original-image D-C is 21.25–47.80 points higher in every run, and all paired intervals exclude zero. Equivalently, C-U increases by the same amount because accuracy and correctness labels remain fixed. Relation consistency and joint credit. The second axis resolves a distinct ambiguity: relation consistency and paired image dependence capture complementary properties. Their conjunction defines Joint, while all-pair GintG int is the empirical interaction diagnostic. Model Rel.o PairCredit Joint Qwen 82.50 92.95 63.64 InternVL 19.09 62.05 10.68 LLaVA 66.14 88.86 23.86 Ministral 44.32 85.45 34.32 Table 2: GSR-COCO relation axis over 440 pairs. Rel.o is strict original-image consistency; PairCredit tests image-specific true–false separation; Joint additionally requires paired dependence. PairCredit holds for 62.05–92.95% of pairs, showing image-specific semantic separation beyond the stricter Joint subset. Joint retains only pairs that also satisfy absolute relation consistency and paired dependence. Controlled evidence-source factorial. To identify the response hidden by null controls, we cross visual and textual evidence states +,−,∅\+,-, \ over 200 balanced spatial stems and four directions. This gives nine inputs per stem (1,800 per model): each source supports the query, supports its opposite, or supplies no relation. For a left-of query, for example, the image places the subject left, right, or axis-neutral, while an evidence note states left, right, or only names the objects. Within a textual state sTs_T, the controlled visual response is ΔV(sT)=m(I+,sT)−m(I−,sT). _V(s_T)=m(I^+,s_T)-m(I^-,s_T). (7) A positive value is a correct-direction response to changing only the rendered relation. We focus on correct agreement cells (I+,sT+)(I^+,s_T^+) and (I−,sT−)(I^-,s_T^-), where both sources support the same answer. If Gimg≤0G img≤ 0 but ΔV(sT)>0 _V(s_T)>0, the decision is marginally uncredited yet counterfactually relation-responsive; an answer change under the same intervention is the stricter flip criterion. To separate relation evidence from object presence, each agreement image is also paired with a same-object, same-background control aligned on the queried axis: N+=d[m(Irel,sT)−m(Ineutral,sT)]>0N^+=d[m(I rel,s_T)-m(I neutral,s_T)]>0. Model Correct n C-U n C-U % Resp. N+N^+ Flip Qwen 400 305 76.25 100.00 100.00 34.43 InternVL 400 331 82.75 81.57 96.07 21.75 LLaVA 310 8 2.58 100.00 75.00 100.00 Ministral 400 38 9.50 100.00 100.00 89.47 Pooled 1,510 682 45.17 91.06 97.80 32.11 Table 3: Evidence-source factorial. Correct n is out of 400 agreement decisions per model; C-U n and rate are conditioned on correct decisions, and Resp./N+N^+/Flip on C-U. Table 3 resolves the apparent ambiguity rather than erasing it. Of 1,510 correct agreement decisions, 682 (45.17% [43.62,46.75]) lack marginal VCA credit; 91.06% [89.21,92.83] of that subset moves in the correct direction under relation reversal, and 32.11% [29.34,34.81] changes its binary answer. Qwen and InternVL contribute 636 of the 682 C-U decisions; their responsiveness is 100.00% [98.76,100.00] and 81.57% [77.04,85.38], respectively. Moreover, 97.80% [96.71,98.82] exceed the object-preserving neutral control (Qwen 100.00%; InternVL 96.07% [93.87,97.94]). Human-audited edit set. Of 440 seeded groups, 114 were geometry-feasible before model scoring. Three consenting non-author volunteers independently assessed shuffled, blinded batches with repeat checks; institutional policy required no formal review for this low-risk task. Consensus retained 108 edits. The same accepted set evaluates all four models. Feasibility favors smaller boxes with sufficient destination clearance, so this check applies to geometry-compatible edits rather than the full benchmark. Independent edited-outcome check. SRC establishes strict original-image relation consistency (Rel.o) before editing. Table 4 adds an independent edit outcome: the frozen model must recognize the accepted flip with both objects visible. Model R/J n Rel. +Vis. Rel.o Joint Qwen 95/79 84.26 67.59 71.58 78.48 InternVL 25/15 25.93 25.93 36.00 33.33 LLaVA 80/30 62.96 57.41 70.00 83.33 Ministral 58/46 45.37 41.67 50.00 56.52 Macro 258/170 54.63 48.15 56.89 62.92 Table 4: Edited-outcome check on 108 accepted geometry-compatible edits. R/J n gives Rel.o/Joint counts per model. Rel. tests the edited true/false pair after human visibility audit; +Vis. additionally requires the model’s two object-presence responses. Rel.o/Joint use +Vis. On the accepted swaps, edited relation-pair consistency is 54.63% overall and 69.47% within Joint; adding model object-presence responses yields 48.15% overall, 56.89% within Rel.o, and 62.92% within Joint. Among the 100 pooled model–edit records that are source-correct but uncredited, 25.00% [17.20,33.05] still achieve flip+visibility. This natural correspondence does not make patch swaps a clean intervention, but it confirms that responsive uncredited cases are not confined to procedural renders. The comparable threshold-crossing rates are therefore 32.11% for controlled answer flip and 25.00% for natural flip+visibility; 91.06% is the weaker directional-margin event. Robustness Analysis Matched image calibration. The primary calibration preserves the audited decision: it fixes the original direction and replaces only the image by a deterministic same-split permutation. Original-image D-C exceeds matched-permutation D-C by 21.25–47.80 points, with every paired 95% interval above zero (Table 1). At item level, correct original-only assignments occupy 22.73–49.72% of each run, versus 0.91–15.13% for permutation-only assignments. This tests whether unrelated visual content reproduces headline credit, not merely the all-decision Dep rate. Alternate control aggregations and visual controls are supplementary. Answer-surface robustness. The fixed two-interface ensemble has 72.39–97.44% D-C agreement with the canonical report. Pair-centered semantic contrast further removes offsets shared by true and false relation queries; across 440 GSR groups and 504 clean VSR inverse pairs, Yes/No–True/False PairCredit Jaccard is 62.80–97.60%, improving agreement in all eight comparisons. These are transport checks, not claims that the canonical surface is itemwise invariant. Threshold and probe robustness. Only 0.08–0.72% of items per run have |Gimg|≤0.01|G img|≤ 0.01. Across fixed-blank, mean-color, and mismatch-inclusive control sets, 89.78% of pooled assignments agree across all three, and 98.09% of headline correct-but-uncredited decisions remain in their intersection. Full run-level stability and continuous agreement are supplementary. Baseline utility and complementarity. At 50% leave-one-model-out coverage, retained original-minus-text-only accuracy (“Visual Gain”) is 33.64 for VCA, comparable to Shortcut Score’s 33.92 (Korkut et al. 2026) and confidence’s 32.90, and above VisNec-style’s 30.52 (+3.12+3.12 [+1.32+1.32,+4.91+4.91]). VCA overlaps 64.74% with confidence at this coverage. These results support complementary audit and filtering use, not universal predictive dominance. Discussion VCA yields a layered report rather than one replacement for accuracy. Accuracy retains task success; D-C identifies successes with additional image support; PairCredit tests image-specific semantic separation, while Rel.o and Joint retain stricter absolute checks when paired statements exist. Raw gaps support ranking, while edited outcomes check semantic transfer. Together these outputs preserve the distinction between correctness, relative support, and relation discrimination. The four-cell decomposition in Eq. 3 also gives two distinct diagnoses that the same accuracy cannot. C-U mass marks decisions whose correctness outruns support from the benchmark image under the chosen controls. Support-advantaged error mass instead marks decisions for which image-specific evidence is present but mapped to the wrong answer. A gold-only gain necessarily collapses this second distinction because it cannot credit evidence for an incorrect declared decision. Prediction alignment preserves it without altering the correct-item event. Operationally, Accuracy and D-C compare task success with support-qualified success; the off-diagonal cells distinguish unsupported correctness from support-advantaged error; and the relation axis asks whether evidence identifies the queried relation. These levels share cached margins but retain separate interpretations. VCA is a post-hoc companion to accuracy, not a fitted replacement score. Text-only and blank define the marginal support contrast; alternate controls test its stability. The factorial supplies the relation-opposite intervention that null controls cannot identify, separating responsive and nonresponsive uncredited decisions. Its neutral control distinguishes relation evidence from generic object presence, while audited swaps connect the distinction to independently judged natural-image edits. Crucially, the factorial does not replace VCA as the headline audit. It requires relation-opposite images that most natural benchmarks cannot supply, whereas VCA uses the benchmark input and source-agnostic null controls without labels. Their roles are complementary: VCA scales to quantify marginal credit on existing tests; the factorial identifies why an uncredited decision can still respond to vision. These two estimands should not be forced into one quantity. Two design choices make this decomposition auditable. Prediction alignment anchors the model’s declared decision, retaining support-advantaged errors instead of folding them into a gold-answer score. The maximum over text-only and blank requires the image to exceed each control. Alternate blanks, mismatch, and edits test implementation, normal-image sufficiency, and semantic transfer without redefining the headline event. Fixed zero-threshold events coexist with continuous ranking, and matched image calibration establishes that the aggregate advantage is specific to the benchmark image. Limitations VCA measures relative support under prespecified controls, not an internal causal pathway or pixel attribution. Its per-question rates are defined for a prespecified forced-choice interface; fixed multi-verbalizer and pair-centered analyses evaluate transport across equivalent answer surfaces. The factorial identifies behavioral response to controlled relation changes in simple procedural scenes, not an internal causal path; the natural-benchmark edit check covers a geometry-selected subset. The evaluation target is a fixed forced-choice decision interface across two spatial benchmarks and four autoregressive MLLMs, not unconstrained greedy text. Open-ended generation and other reasoning domains require output-specific support definitions. Conclusion VCA provides a training-free audit of whether spatial decisions gain support from the image and distinguish relations on fixed pixels. 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Zhao (2024) What if the TV was off? examining counterfactual reasoning abilities of multi-modal language models. In Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Cited by: Introduction, Shortcut Learning and Counterfactual VQA. P. Zhang, Y. Goyal, D. Summers-Stay, D. Batra, and D. Parikh (2016) Yin and yang: balancing and answering binary visual questions. In Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, p. 5014–5022. Cited by: Introduction, Shortcut Learning and Counterfactual VQA. Supplementary Material Audit Definitions and Protocol Prediction-Aligned Relative Image Dependence For every binary query, we cache the literal yes/no continuation margin mi,c=ℓθ(no∣c,qi)−ℓθ(yes∣c,qi)m_i,c= _θ(no c,q_i)- _θ(yes c,q_i) (8) for the original image o, text-only input t, and blank image b. The original-image prediction determines di∈−1,+1d_i∈\-1,+1\, and ri,c=dimi,cr_i,c=d_im_i,c expresses support for that prediction under context c. The primary continuous signal and binary audit event are Giimg=ri,o−max(ri,t,ri,b),Di=Giimg>0.G_i^img=r_i,o- (r_i,t,r_i,b), D_i=1\G_i^img>0\. (9) Here dependence denotes a control-relative support advantage, not the necessity of the image for preserving the binary answer. No benchmark label, learned scorer, or development threshold enters DiD_i. Labels are used only afterward for original accuracy and D-C=N−1∑iDiy^i=yiD -C=N^-1 _iD_i1\ y_i=y_i\. For a correct prediction, did_i equals the gold-answer direction. Thus its DiD_i indicator is algebraically identical to thresholding a gold-aligned per-instance gain built from the same controls. Prediction alignment contributes a label-free event over all decisions, including errors; it does not create a different correct-only indicator. Text-only removes the image channel. Blank uses a same-size fixed mid-gray image and therefore controls for the multimodal prompt format. A random same-split image is retained as a mismatch robustness probe, but not as a no-evidence premise: object absence can legitimately make a binary statement false. Relation-erased and irrelevant-erased views are similarly optional box-erasure diagnostics. They do not determine GiimgG_i^img, DiD_i, or D-C. Relation Consistency, Joint Audit, and Derived Interaction GSR-COCO contains 440 object-pair groups, each with a true and false relation statement on the same image. Relation consistency requires accepting the true statement and rejecting its paired false statement. For context c∈o,t,bc∈\o,t,b\, let Hc=mc(qr+)−maxr−mc(qr−)H_c=m_c(q_r^+)- _r^-m_c(q_r^-) and Gint=Ho−max(Ht,Hb)G int=H_o- (H_t,H_b). Pair dependence requires both statements to satisfy Di=1D_i=1, and VCA Joint is exactly Relo∧PairDRel_o . Under ReloRel_o, the true statement’s original prediction is Yes and the false statement’s is No. Pair D therefore gives mo+>mc+m_o^+>m_c^+ and mo−<mc−m_o^-<m_c^- for each c∈t,bc∈\t,b\, implying Ho>HcH_o>H_c and hence Gint>0G int>0. The implication is a structural property of Joint. Interaction over all groups and edited outcomes provide the empirical checks beyond that property. This construction edits no pixels and trains no semantic classifier. Evaluation Protocol VSR contains 1,249 queries. GSR-COCO contains 880 statements arranged into 440 true/false pairs. Prespecified canonical Yes/No scoring supplies the complete benchmark-level headline layer. We evaluate frozen Qwen3-VL-8B-Instruct, InternVL3.5-8B, LLaVA-OneVision-Qwen2-7B-OV, and Ministral-3-14B-Instruct-2512 with identical literal yes/no forced-choice scoring: lower continuation loss determines the binary decision. This is the declared evaluation interface rather than unconstrained generation. Primary audit comparisons fix the question and decision rule while changing only the visual input. Confidence intervals for Dep and D-C use 5,000 paired bootstrap resamples with seed 20260719. Across the 8,516 main records, no original margin is exactly zero or within 10−1210^-12 at stored precision; the implementation maps an exact equality to Yes. Canonical Yes/No supplies complete dataset-level rates, while a fixed Yes/No–True/False mean-margin ensemble summarizes aggregate surface robustness. Where inverse relations exist, pair-centered semantic differencing removes offsets shared by the true and false queries. Canonical Acc/Dep/D-C, matched image-permutation excess, and the controlled factorial contrasts form the headline report; control variants test robustness, while edited-outcome regressions and filtering evaluate external correspondence. Controlled Evidence-Source Factorial Identification and Construction For fixed textual evidence state sTs_T, original, text-only, and blank observations constrain a frozen response function only at I+I^+, ∅ , and B. A second response function can take identical values at these three inputs and an arbitrary different value at a relation-opposite I−I^-. Therefore no null-control statistic alone identifies whether a decision with Gimg≤0G img≤ 0 is visually unresponsive or responds to visual evidence that is redundant with text. This is an observational non-identifiability statement; it does not depend on the use of a maximum rather than a mean or on the zero threshold. We supply the missing intervention with a 3×33×3 visual–textual factorial. Each source independently takes one of three states: supports the queried relation (++), supports its opposite (−-), or supplies no relation (∅ ). We render 50 stems for each of left, right, above, and below, giving 200 factorial groups and 1,800 inputs per model. The left-of cells, for example, place the subject left, right, or aligned on the horizontal axis, while the matched evidence note states left, right, or only the two object identities. The 512-by-512 scenes use deterministic object identities, layouts, and seed 20260724. Across the three visual states, the complete text is bit-identical; across the three text states, the image path is identical. Automated checks verify all nine cells, direction balance, and exact reuse of no-image controls. Deduplicating shared text-only and blank evaluations yields 3,000 scored probes per model. For every complete textual state sTs_T, define the controlled visual effect ΔV(sT)=m(I+,sT)−m(I−,sT). _V(s_T)=m(I^+,s_T)-m(I^-,s_T). (10) Positive ΔV(sT) _V(s_T) means that changing only the rendered relation moves the Yes margin in the correct direction. The symmetric text effect ΔT(I)=m(I,sT+)−m(I,sT−) _T(I)=m(I,s_T^+)-m(I,s_T^-) holds the image fixed. Agreement cells (I+,sT+)(I^+,s_T^+) and (I−,sT−)(I^-,s_T^-) have unambiguous Yes and No labels; conflict cells have no gold answer and report which source determines the prediction. For a correct agreement decision with Gimg≤0G img≤ 0, we call ΔV(sT)>0 _V(s_T)>0 relation-responsive and separately record the stricter event that the binary answer changes under I+↔I−I^+ I^-. Model Correct n C-U n (rate) Responsive [95% CI] Answer flip [95% CI] Resp. mass Nonresp. mass Conflict win Qwen 400 305 (76.25) 100.00 [98.76,100.00] 34.43 [29.32,39.92] 76.25 0.00 50.00 InternVL 400 331 (82.75) 81.57 [77.04,85.38] 21.75 [17.65,26.51] 67.50 15.25 22.25 LLaVA 310 8 (2.58) 100.00 [67.56,100.00] 100.00 [67.56,100.00] 2.58 0.00 55.25 Ministral 400 38 (9.50) 100.00 [90.82,100.00] 89.47 [75.87,95.83] 9.50 0.00 90.50 Pooled 1,510 682 (45.17) 91.06 [89.21,92.83] 32.11 [29.34,34.81] 41.13 4.04 54.50 Table 5: Factorial decomposition. Correct n is out of 400 agreement decisions per model. C-U is conditioned on correct decisions; Responsive and Answer flip are conditioned on C-U. Responsive and nonresponsive mass use all correct decisions as denominator. Model-level conditional intervals are Wilson intervals; pooled intervals resample stem ids while retaining all model records. The pooled correct-uncredited fraction is 45.17 [43.62,46.75], the responsive fraction is 91.06 [89.21,92.83], and the strict answer-flip fraction is 32.11 [29.34,34.81]. The distinction matters: a score can move in the correct direction without crossing the binary decision boundary. The corresponding unweighted model-macro values are 42.77, 95.39, and 61.41. We treat the micro-pooled conditional rates as primary because equal model weighting gives LLaVA’s eight and Ministral’s 38 C-U decisions the same weight as the much larger Qwen and InternVL subsets. All four models have positive mean ΔV _V under every textual state. The nondegenerate intervals make the small-denominator uncertainty explicit: LLaVA’s two 100% rates use eight C-U decisions and have lower bounds of 67.56%, rather than implying a precisely known population rate. The sign result is not confined to numerical ties: every uncredited response for Qwen, LLaVA, and Ministral exceeds 1.0 margin unit; for InternVL, 76.74% exceed 0.1 and 66.16% exceed 0.5. These magnitudes are interpreted within model rather than as a cross-backbone scale. Object-Preserving Relation-Neutral Control The opposite-relation factorial changes object positions, so we add a matched control that retains the deterministic background, object identities, shapes, sizes, and text. For left/right queries, the two object centers share the same x-coordinate and remain separated vertically; for above/below, they share the same y-coordinate and remain separated horizontally. The resulting image contains both objects but neither ordering on the queried axis. For each agreement cell, with correct-answer direction d∈−1,+1d∈\-1,+1\, we measure ΔN=d[m(Irel,sT)−m(Ineutral,sT)]. _N=d\,[m(I rel,s_T)-m(I neutral,s_T)]. (11) Positive ΔN _N means that the relation-bearing image contributes more support in the agreement direction than general image and object presence. Intervals cluster-bootstrap the 200 stem ids with 5,000 resamples. Model Correct n C-U n ΔN>0 _N>0 [95% CI] Mean ΔN _N [95% CI] Qwen 400 305 100.00 [100.00,100.00] 3.712 [3.569,3.840] InternVL 400 331 96.07 [93.87,97.94] 0.557 [0.518,0.595] LLaVA 310 8 75.00 [40.00,100.00] 0.926 [0.385,1.371] Ministral 400 38 100.00 [100.00,100.00] 4.589 [4.203,4.990] Pooled 1,510 682 97.80 [96.71,98.82] 2.197 [2.091,2.301] Table 6: Same-object relation-neutral control within correct-but-uncredited agreement decisions. Margins are in model-native units and are not compared across backbones. The pooled rate and its lower confidence bound exceed chance, as do the two models contributing 636 of 682 C-U decisions. Thus, in this controlled domain, a generic response to seeing the named objects does not explain 97.80% of the pooled contrasts. LLaVA’s eight-case interval remains correspondingly wide. Visual effect ΔV(sT) _V(s_T) Text effect ΔT(I) _T(I) Inter. Model sT+s_T^+ sT−s_T^- sT∅s_T I+I^+ I−I^- I∅I Qwen 10.684 3.538 11.688 11.141 3.995 1.138 7.146 InternVL 0.439 1.825 3.494 1.472 2.858 1.377 -1.386 LLaVA 2.791 1.986 3.052 1.781 0.975 0.290 0.806 Ministral 14.086 9.117 17.025 5.520 0.552 0.596 4.968 Table 7: Mean conditional source effects in native margin units. Interaction is ΔV(sT+)−ΔV(sT−) _V(s_T^+)- _V(s_T^-); magnitudes are interpreted within model. Model Dep T/F D-C T/F Corr. VCA Corr. Conf. Qwen 100.00/50.00 100.00/0.00 100.00 98.83 InternVL 88.00/15.75 87.50/0.00 100.00 72.10 LLaVA 74.25/40.75 65.75/1.25 99.66 84.20 Ministral 99.50/26.00 99.50/0.00 100.00 99.98 Table 8: Nested source-only validation. T/F denotes image-source TPR and text-source FPR. Correct-decision columns report source AUROC for VCA and confidence. The nested source-only cells reproduce the earlier validation question while the full factorial answers the stronger responsiveness question. Correct- decision VCA source AUROC is 99.66–100.00. Thus VCA accurately identifies marginal source advantage in these controlled inputs, while the factorial demonstrates why marginal advantage and counterfactual response must not be collapsed into one claim. Natural-Image Correspondence We next join the same 108 accepted object-swap edits to each model’s canonical source query. This is not a clean causal intervention because patch editing can introduce rendering artifacts; its role is to test whether the controlled phenotype also appears in natural benchmark records. Among source-correct records, we stratify by canonical VCA credit and evaluate whether the edited image induces the expected answer flip while both objects remain visible. Model Correct n C-U n C-U rate Flip+vis. within C-U Qwen 100 2 2.00 50.00 InternVL 106 59 55.66 22.03 LLaVA 100 6 6.00 16.67 Ministral 103 33 32.04 30.30 Pooled 409 100 24.45 25.00 Table 9: Natural-image correspondence on three-annotator-accepted edits. C-U means source-correct but uncredited. The pooled flip+visibility interval within C-U is [17.20,33.05]. The pooled rate shows that a substantial minority of naturally occurring correct-but-uncredited records still respond to a relation edit. The controlled factorial supplies identification; this artifact-sensitive edit set supplies cross-domain correspondence, not proof that every uncredited natural decision contains redundant visual evidence. Probe Construction and Geometry Matched Context Construction Bounding boxes are used only by the offline renderer for optional stress views; the frozen MLLM never receives boxes, masks, depth, or segmentation labels. The primary image-dependence audit uses no boxes. Table 10 records the exact matched contexts and whether each enters a headline quantity. Context Construction Role Original Unmodified RGB image and fixed spatial query. Primary support Text-only Identical query without an image. Primary control Blank Same-size fixed mid-gray canvas. Primary control Mismatch Fixed query with a same-split image. Robustness only Relation-erased Padded subject–object union filled with image mean. Box stress test Irrelevant-erased Distant tiles filled outside the protected union. Box stress test SRC True and false relations on the same image and pair. Relation axis Object swap Object patches moved to exchanged positions. External check Table 10: Exact VCA context construction. Only original, text-only, and blank enter the primary image-dependence gap. Original and blank supply one image, while text-only supplies none and retains no visual placeholder. Within each backend, the question, native chat template, generation prefix, and answer verbalizers remain fixed within each interface. Qwen uses the explicit system message “You are a helpful assistant.”; the other three backends add no system message. Qwen, InternVL, and LLaVA use their AutoProcessor templates; Ministral uses MistralCommon. For Qwen, InternVL, and LLaVA, the leading-space verbalizers yes/no/true/false are single tokens with ids 9834/902/830/895; Ministral’s native continuation tokens have ids 13059/2649/5876/11339. No free-form or chain-of-thought decoding is invoked. Blank preserves source dimensions before native transforms. Prompt/BOS tokens are masked, and loss averages only continuation tokens. GSR-COCO Pairing GSR-COCO is converted from the two-object COCO-Spatial-Two split using the supplied caption-option metadata. Each option is parsed into subject, relation, and object fields and converted to a literal yes/no statement. The metadata order fixes the true option; its paired alternative supplies the false statement. We preserve image ids, option ids, relations, and split names and do not rebalance relations or filter samples using model outputs. This produces 880 statements in 440 fixed same-image pairs before any MLLM is scored. The paired construction gives exactly 440 true and 440 false statements; relation counts are 279 each for left/right and 161 each for above/below. Erasure Geometry RelE removes subject–object support rather than isolating the relation; Table 11 quantifies its scope. The padded union covers both boxes and most of the image. IrrE fills outside the protected union; zero-overlap is harder on VSR because large boxes leave little background. Data N Rel mean Rel med. Irr mean Irr zero VSR 1196 74.8 77.6 7.1 59.9 GSR-COCO 880 60.8 59.7 11.0 83.4 Table 11: Erasure geometry as percentage of image area. Zero overlap is the percentage of IrrE views with no erased pixels inside the protected union. Decision Survival and Outcome Decomposition Decision Survival Under No-Image Controls To separate incremental support from answer-level necessity, we condition on Di=1D_i=1 and record whether each no-image control preserves the original binary prediction. “Both same” means that neither control changes the answer; “Any changes” is its complement. Model Data Text same Blank same Both same Any changes Qwen VSR 26.80 25.45 20.72 79.28 Qwen GSR 42.50 44.31 39.44 60.56 InternVL VSR 86.94 80.34 78.79 21.21 InternVL GSR 75.33 75.60 75.33 24.67 LLaVA VSR 70.34 1.57 0.10 99.90 LLaVA GSR 72.71 19.89 1.76 98.24 Ministral VSR 62.20 70.67 54.87 45.13 Ministral GSR 55.32 55.51 51.90 48.10 Table 12: Decision survival among credited samples (%). The wide range reflects model- and context-specific answer priors. It also makes the construct boundary explicit: positive VCA credit means that removing image content lowers support, not necessarily that the image is required to preserve the binary answer. Decision survival is therefore reported as a phenotype rather than folded into the credit rule. Answer-Direction Stress Tests Strict isolation additionally requires both no-image controls to favor the opposite original decision. Table 13 shows why this is unsuitable as the primary definition. Its answer-direction behavior is extreme and model-dependent: it nearly vanishes on Qwen and LLaVA negative predictions, but is high on InternVL negative predictions because InternVL has a different response prior. The non-negating Dep test still reveals substantial directional differences, but it no longer equates missing evidence with the opposite proposition. Model Data Prediction N Acc Dep D-C Strict Qwen VSR Yes 672 80.51 98.36 79.32 90.48 Qwen VSR No 577 78.16 39.34 34.32 0.00 Qwen GSR-COCO Yes 402 94.78 99.00 93.78 93.53 Qwen GSR-COCO No 478 87.66 67.36 65.06 0.21 InternVL VSR Yes 1157 56.53 54.19 36.47 0.69 InternVL VSR No 92 85.87 92.39 78.26 80.43 InternVL GSR-COCO Yes 784 54.72 36.22 28.06 0.00 InternVL GSR-COCO No 96 88.54 96.88 86.46 95.83 LLaVA VSR Yes 997 64.59 94.18 63.19 26.98 LLaVA VSR No 252 90.87 5.95 5.56 0.00 LLaVA GSR-COCO Yes 519 77.07 88.25 73.22 9.83 LLaVA GSR-COCO No 361 88.92 30.47 30.47 0.28 Ministral VSR Yes 1037 60.75 59.50 44.36 5.50 Ministral VSR No 212 82.55 82.08 68.87 55.19 Ministral GSR-COCO Yes 641 64.74 45.87 43.37 0.00 Ministral GSR-COCO No 239 89.54 97.07 87.45 89.96 Table 13: Results by original prediction. Strict requires opposite-answer isolation under both no-image controls. Model Data Gold answer N Acc Dep D-C Strict Qwen VSR Yes 667 81.11 84.26 79.91 73.01 Qwen VSR No 582 77.49 56.01 34.02 20.79 Qwen GSR-COCO Yes 440 86.59 88.18 85.68 80.68 Qwen GSR-COCO No 440 95.23 75.45 70.68 5.00 InternVL VSR Yes 667 98.05 65.22 63.27 3.00 InternVL VSR No 582 13.57 47.59 12.37 10.65 InternVL GSR-COCO Yes 440 97.50 52.27 50.00 2.27 InternVL GSR-COCO No 440 19.32 33.41 18.86 18.64 LLaVA VSR Yes 667 96.55 94.60 94.45 28.04 LLaVA VSR No 582 39.35 55.50 2.41 14.09 LLaVA GSR-COCO Yes 440 90.91 86.36 86.36 8.18 LLaVA GSR-COCO No 440 72.95 42.73 25.00 3.64 Ministral VSR Yes 667 94.45 73.16 68.97 9.30 Ministral VSR No 582 30.07 52.06 25.09 19.24 Ministral GSR-COCO Yes 440 94.32 68.41 63.18 5.00 Ministral GSR-COCO No 440 48.64 51.14 47.50 43.86 Table 14: Results stratified by the benchmark answer. Prediction-balanced Gold-balanced Model Data D-C C-U D-C C-U Qwen VSR 56.82 22.52 56.97 22.33 Qwen GSR-COCO 79.42 11.80 78.18 12.73 InternVL VSR 57.37 13.84 37.82 17.99 InternVL GSR-COCO 57.26 14.37 34.43 23.98 LLaVA VSR 34.38 43.36 48.43 19.52 LLaVA GSR-COCO 51.84 31.15 55.68 26.25 Ministral VSR 56.62 15.04 47.03 15.23 Ministral GSR-COCO 65.41 11.73 55.34 16.14 Table 15: Equal-weight direction sensitivity derived from the preceding strata. Prediction-balanced averages original Yes and No predictions; gold-balanced averages benchmark Yes and No answers. C-U is balanced Acc−-D-C. These stress estimands do not replace benchmark-distribution rates. Gold-direction balancing preserves the headline 12.73–26.25% C-U range and the VSR D-C ordering. Prediction-direction balancing yields 11.73–43.36% C-U and changes the VSR ordering, demonstrating that benchmark-distribution rates are not direction-invariant model abilities. Audit Outcome Decomposition A positive image gap and correctness are logically independent. Table 16 partitions every run into the four resulting events. Correct/not-dependent is the portion of ordinary accuracy withheld by VCA; wrong/dependent is the portion where the image influenced the model but did not produce the benchmark answer. Credited precision reports correctness conditional on Di=1D_i=1. Model Data Correct+D Correct+¬ Wrong+D Wrong+¬ Credited precision Qwen VSR 58.53 20.90 12.57 8.01 82.32 Qwen GSR-COCO 78.18 12.73 3.64 5.45 95.56 InternVL VSR 39.55 19.14 17.45 23.86 69.38 InternVL GSR-COCO 34.43 23.98 8.41 33.18 80.37 LLaVA VSR 51.56 18.33 24.82 5.28 67.51 LLaVA GSR-COCO 55.68 26.25 8.86 9.20 86.27 Ministral VSR 48.52 15.93 14.81 20.74 76.61 Ministral GSR-COCO 55.34 16.14 4.43 24.09 92.59 Table 16: Complete audit taxonomy. The four middle columns partition all samples and therefore sum to 100 within each row. Values are percentages. Continuous Raw-Gap Distributions Binary Dep records the gap sign; its magnitude distinguishes near-zero boundary cases from strong per-item evidence. Table 17 shows broad overlap across models and datasets rather than a degenerate mass at zero. In particular, InternVL/GSR-COCO has a negative median and mean but a positive upper quartile, explaining how its Dep rate can remain 42.84%. Model Data Mean P10 P25 Median P75 P90 Qwen VSR 2.476 −1.781-1.781 −0.312-0.312 2.062 4.969 7.475 Qwen GSR-COCO 2.953 −0.688-0.688 0.781 2.797 4.883 7.284 InternVL VSR 0.297 −1.826-1.826 −0.740-0.740 0.233 1.318 2.272 InternVL GSR-COCO −0.264-0.264 −2.729-2.729 −1.629-1.629 −0.379-0.379 1.028 2.316 LLaVA VSR 1.072 −1.609-1.609 0.103 1.254 2.277 3.219 LLaVA GSR-COCO 0.651 −1.362-1.362 −0.438-0.438 0.499 1.894 2.872 Ministral VSR 0.898 −1.875-1.875 −0.672-0.672 0.688 2.312 3.781 Ministral GSR-COCO 0.605 −2.361-2.361 −1.281-1.281 0.656 2.375 3.375 Table 17: Distribution of the unmodified raw image gap. Quantiles are computed across samples before thresholding. The sign threshold is not supported by a large numerical boundary mass. Across the eight model–dataset runs, only 0.08–0.72% of items satisfy |Gimg|≤0.01|G^img|≤ 0.01, and 2.40–5.91% satisfy |Gimg|≤0.1|G^img|≤ 0.1. This complements the positive-threshold sweep: the headline split is not determined by many near-zero ties. Relation Consistency, Joint Audit, and Interaction Model Groups Rel.o Rel.t Rel.b PairCred. Pair D Joint Mean int. Qwen 440 82.50 2.95 1.14 92.95 70.23 63.64 6.260 InternVL 440 19.09 0.00 2.27 62.05 20.23 10.68 1.193 LLaVA 440 66.14 5.68 0.68 88.86 40.45 23.86 2.476 Ministral 440 44.32 2.73 0.45 85.45 41.14 34.32 2.946 Table 18: GSR-COCO relation decomposition. Joint is Rel.∧o_o D; Mean int. is GintG int. Mean Ho/Ht/HbH_o/H_t/H_b is 6.529/0.084/0.0146.529/0.084/0.014 for Qwen, 1.951/0.135/0.0331.951/0.135/0.033 for InternVL, 2.656/0.039/0.0542.656/0.039/0.054 for LLaVA, and 3.372/0.021/−0.0163.372/0.021/-0.016 for Ministral. The 5,000-pair bootstrap intervals for mean GintG int are [5.867,6.643], [0.943,1.435], [2.297,2.665], and [2.687,3.201], respectively. Thus each backbone shows positive average image–relation interaction, while per-pair PairCredit retains heterogeneity. Pair D alone does not require correct relation discrimination; Joint combines Pair D with Rel.o. The resulting implication for Joint is definitional; PairCredit and mean GintG int over all groups are the empirical quantities that retain heterogeneity outside the Joint subset. Relation-Wise VSR Results Table 19 reports all nine VSR relation families, exposing substantial relation-wise variation in dependence and credited precision. Model Relation N Acc Dep D-C Cred. prec. Mean gap Qwen above 195 77.95 72.82 61.03 83.80 2.609 Qwen behind 150 72.00 60.67 46.67 76.92 1.669 Qwen below 231 78.79 64.94 51.95 80.00 2.861 Qwen contains 66 75.76 54.55 40.91 75.00 1.960 Qwen in_front_of 142 80.28 71.83 59.15 82.35 2.051 Qwen inside 103 85.44 71.84 66.02 91.89 1.946 Qwen left_of 136 80.15 86.76 69.12 79.66 3.088 Qwen on 117 85.47 70.09 60.68 86.59 2.075 Qwen right_of 109 81.65 85.32 71.56 83.87 3.559 InternVL above 195 61.03 40.00 28.72 71.79 −0.318-0.318 InternVL behind 150 58.00 58.00 40.67 70.11 0.349 InternVL below 231 54.55 55.41 35.06 63.28 0.122 InternVL contains 66 53.03 50.00 39.39 78.79 0.212 InternVL in_front_of 142 58.45 66.20 38.03 57.45 0.428 InternVL inside 103 70.87 80.58 61.17 75.90 1.667 InternVL left_of 136 57.35 36.03 31.62 87.76 −0.405-0.405 InternVL on 117 62.39 70.09 52.14 74.39 0.849 InternVL right_of 109 54.13 71.56 44.95 62.82 0.568 LLaVA above 195 68.72 85.64 58.46 68.26 1.408 LLaVA behind 150 67.33 82.00 54.00 65.85 1.004 LLaVA below 231 62.34 83.12 51.52 61.98 1.065 LLaVA contains 66 68.18 68.18 39.39 57.78 1.220 LLaVA in_front_of 142 66.90 83.80 55.63 66.39 0.781 LLaVA inside 103 87.38 62.14 49.51 79.69 0.851 LLaVA left_of 136 68.38 70.59 50.00 70.83 1.144 LLaVA on 117 70.09 62.39 38.46 61.64 0.723 LLaVA right_of 109 81.65 68.81 55.96 81.33 1.361 Ministral above 195 71.28 75.38 58.46 77.55 1.109 Ministral behind 150 58.67 51.33 36.67 71.43 0.068 Ministral below 231 58.01 47.62 35.06 73.64 −0.072-0.072 Ministral contains 66 71.21 74.24 59.09 79.59 2.048 Ministral in_front_of 142 64.79 79.58 54.23 68.14 1.390 Ministral inside 103 81.55 76.70 66.99 87.34 2.157 Ministral left_of 136 56.62 46.32 39.71 85.71 0.075 Ministral on 117 67.52 82.91 59.83 72.16 2.753 Ministral right_of 109 59.63 51.38 43.12 83.93 0.224 Table 19: Raw VCA results for every VSR relation family. Values except N and Mean gap are percentages. Human-Audited Edit Construction Fixed geometry selected 114 of 440 source pairs without using model outputs. Three non-author volunteers independently assessed shuffled, blinded batches with repeat checks, and majority consensus retained 108 edits. Every model is evaluated on this same accepted set. Same-Record and Independent Edit Correspondence We test whether the headline dual-control VCA gap ranks two prespecified relation behaviors. SRC is a same-record consistency check rather than an independent target: for each pair, the predictor is the raw gap of the canonical true-relation statement; the false statement enters only the same-image consistency target, and statement gaps are not aggregated. Each edit uses six binary probes: source-image qr/qr−1q_r/q_r^-1 (targets yes/no), edited-image qr/qr−1q_r/q_r^-1 (no/yes), and edited-image subject/object presence (yes/yes). Let z(p)z(p) indicate a yes prediction. Because every accepted edit has human-confirmed object visibility, the relation-only target is (1−z(qr,I′))z(qr−1,I′)(1-z(q_r,I ))z(q_r^-1,I ). The primary model-checked target is (1−z(qr,I′))z(qr−1,I′)z(qspres,I′)z(qopres,I′)(1-z(q_r,I ))z(q_r^-1,I )z(q_s pres,I )z(q_o pres,I ); the strict sensitivity additionally requires z(qr,I)(1−z(qr−1,I))z(q_r,I)(1-z(q_r^-1,I)). Thus the primary target contains no source condition. Neither target defines or tunes GimgG^img. All four models evaluate each of the 108 accepted edits (432 correlated records). Check Model N Base rate AUROC AUPRC H–L Swap strict Qwen 108 62.96 83.99 85.86 +63.89 Swap strict InternVL 108 8.33 50.51 10.05 +2.78 Swap strict LLaVA 108 51.85 90.56 91.80 +83.33 Swap strict Ministral 108 26.85 76.52 57.28 +41.67 Swap strict Rank-pooled 432 37.50 74.85 59.01 – Swap flip+vis. Rank-pooled 432 48.15 67.93 63.39 – SRC Qwen 440 82.50 92.29 97.73 +44.53 SRC InternVL 440 19.09 55.55 21.53 +8.22 SRC LLaVA 440 66.14 78.71 87.45 +49.38 SRC Ministral 440 44.32 65.34 61.64 +29.45 SRC Macro (4 models) – 53.01 72.97 67.09 +32.88 Table 20: Standalone predictive validity of the headline dual-control VCA gap. Strict requires original-pair correctness plus edited flip+visibility; flip+vis. omits the original-pair condition. Rank pooling is performed within model. H–L is the high-minus-low tertile success difference. SRC macro rows average metrics computed separately within each backbone; raw scores are never ranked across models. The swap pooled rows first convert each predictor to within-model percentile ranks. Its model-specific AUROCs expose substantial heterogeneity, especially the low strict-flip base rate for InternVL. Swap high–low intervals use edit-id cluster bootstrap, and SRC intervals use relation-pair clusters. The 67.93 row targets standalone flip+visibility, 74.85 targets the stricter composite, and the cross-fitted analysis below tests incremental prediction after covariate control. Confidence–VCA discordance. We split confidence at the median separately within each model and dataset, then cross it with the untuned event Gimg>0G^img>0. This descriptive split covers all 8,516 test records and joins the same source records to all 432 model–edit outcomes. Source quadrant Test N Share Acc. Swap N Flip+vis. Strict High conf., credited 3,715 43.62 86.11 293 56.31 49.15 High conf., uncredited 573 6.73 67.36 43 20.93 6.98 Low conf., credited 1,821 21.38 68.31 46 43.48 26.09 Low conf., uncredited 2,407 28.26 51.43 50 28.00 6.00 Table 21: Systematic confidence–VCA discordance. Test columns pool the two complete benchmarks; swap columns report human-audited edited behavior. Values other than counts are percentages. High-confidence uncredited cases occur in every model–dataset combination (0.23–18.52% of its records) and span all evaluated relation families. Their edited outcomes differ sharply from high-confidence credited cases, showing that original-context certainty and matched-control image support are behaviorally distinct signals. Direct shared-margin control. Because strict original-image relation consistency (Rel.o) and its predictor share the canonical true statement, we directly compare the gap with that statement’s original margin. The original margin reaches 75.83 macro AUROC for Rel.o, versus 72.97 for the gap, and their cross-validated combination changes AUROC by −0.31-0.31. Rel.o therefore serves as a same-record convergent check. For a false-only target conditioned on the true statement being accepted, the gap retains direct ranking and a positive increment beyond the conditional baseline. Target True m. Gap Cond. CV Δ Rel. consistency 75.83 72.97 – −0.31-0.31 [−0.62-0.62,−0.12-0.12] False-only – 66.41 44.88 +0.99+0.99 [+0.49+0.49,+1.36+1.36] Table 22: Macro AUROC controls for predictor–target score sharing. Conditional gap compares within true-margin bins; CV increment adds the raw gap to the true margin in repeated out-of-fold logistic regression. Independent edit outcomes by audit stratum. We join each source-image Joint decision to an independently judged edited-image outcome requiring relation-flip recognition and visibility of both objects. The target contains no source-pair consistency term and therefore evaluates transfer beyond the source audit. Model R/J n Rel. +Vis. Rel.o Joint ΔPairD _ PairD Qwen 95/79 84.26 67.59 71.58 78.48 +6.90+6.90 InternVL 25/15 25.93 25.93 36.00 33.33 −2.67-2.67 LLaVA 80/30 62.96 57.41 70.00 83.33 +13.33+13.33 Ministral 58/46 45.37 41.67 50.00 56.52 +6.52+6.52 Macro 258/170 54.63 48.15 56.89 62.92 +6.02+6.02 Table 23: Component audit on 108 accepted edits per model. R/J n gives Rel.o/Joint counts. Rel. tests the edited true/false pair after human visibility audit; +Vis. additionally requires both model object-presence responses. Rel.o/Joint use +Vis. and exclude source consistency. Relation-only success is 54.63% overall and 69.47% within Joint (+14.84+14.84 [+8.24+8.24,+22.24+22.24]); adding the model’s two object-presence responses gives 48.15% and 62.92%, respectively. Thus 6.48 points of the overall composite failure arise from model visibility responses despite human confirmation that both objects remain visible. Joint raises the full composite by +14.77+14.77 [+7.91+7.91,+22.30+22.30]. Within Rel.o, the Pair D stratum is +6.02+6.02 [+0.10+0.10,+12.16+12.16] points higher; Qwen, LLaVA, and Ministral are positive, whereas InternVL is −2.67-2.67 [−20.33-20.33,+13.16+13.16]. A leave-one-edit-out model restricted to Rel.o and controlling relation, model, original direction, and within-model confidence rank changes AUROC from 82.01 to 82.03 when Pair D is added: +0.03+0.03 [−1.41-1.41,+1.41+1.41]. The results establish total Joint enrichment and descriptive Pair D stratification; the adjusted Pair D increment remains unresolved. The independent target fails in 37.08% of Joint records, defining the observed transfer boundary. Edit-grouped incremental control. For every held-out edit, we exclude all four associated model records, fit on the other edits, and predict the held-out records. The baseline contains model and relation indicators, original answer direction, and within-model confidence rank. The augmented model adds the within-model rank of the headline Gimg=ro−max(rt,rb)G^img=r_o- (r_t,r_b); no erasure or mismatch score enters. Bootstrap intervals resample edit ids and retain their model records. Target Edits/records Baseline +VCA Δ [95% CI] Flip+visibility 108/432 78.21 79.32 +1.10+1.10 [−0.05-0.05,+2.26+2.26] Strict composite 108/432 89.77 90.14 +0.37+0.37 [−0.21-0.21,+0.96+0.96] Flip given orig. pair 100/259 82.13 82.25 +0.12+0.12 [−0.96-0.96,+1.17+1.17] Table 24: Leave-one-edit-out AUROC. The first row isolates edited relation recognition and visibility; the strict row also includes original-pair correctness. The default flip+visibility increment is +1.10+1.10 [−0.05-0.05,+2.26+2.26], and all four model-specific increments are positive at +1.26+1.26 to +4.06+4.06. The strict composite is strongly predicted by original support. InternVL illustrates the distinction: 105/108 edits retain both objects, 28/108 produce edited-pair consistency, but only 25/108 have an originally consistent pair and 9/108 pass the strict composite. Ridge values from 0.10.1 to 1010 give gains of +0.93+0.93 to +1.18+1.18, with all intervals crossing zero. Replacing confidence plus direction by the within-model signed-margin rank gives +1.55+1.55 [+0.37+0.37,+2.67+2.67]. Leave-one-model-out gains range from +0.78+0.78 to +1.30+1.30, with all intervals crossing zero. Horizontal and vertical increments are +2.03+2.03 [−0.19-0.19,+4.31+4.31] and −1.16-1.16 [−2.47-2.47,+0.07+0.07], respectively. The audit therefore shows a positive cross-model tendency together with axis heterogeneity. The target-supervised regressions above diagnose external validity and do not alter the label-free VCA definition. Confidence needs only the original score; headline VCA uses exactly three scored contexts per item (original, text-only, and blank), versus one for ordinary accuracy. The full two-verbalizer sensitivity check uses six. SRC reuses these GSR-COCO statement scores. Backend-dependent batching precludes a portable wall-clock multiplier, so we report context counts. Held-Out Benchmark Filtering We adapt the closest continuous per-question audit, Korkut et al.’s (2026) Shortcut Score S(q)=T(q)−V(q)S(q)=T(q)-V(q), to binary GSR-COCO. For each reference model, T is correct-and-confident text-only evidence and V is the gold-answer probability gain from text-only to the original image, normalized by 1−1/21-1/2. Because this comparison has no separate text-only LLM panel, T uses the reference VLMs’ text-only branches; this is a close binary-answer adaptation rather than an exact reproduction of their LLM panel. We also adapt VisNec’s core score as the gold-answer loss reduction from the text-only control to the original image. Exact VisNec masks visual-token attention in a model-specific blind pass and adds semantic clustering; our cached-control version is therefore denoted VisNec-style rather than an exact reproduction. For a label-free benchmark-level use of VCA, dependence gaps are rank-normalized within each reference model before averaging. Every filter is constructed from three architectures and evaluated on the held-out fourth architecture. We average scores within the 440 supplied true/false relation groups, retain both questions in each selected group, and compare equal coverage rather than tune a threshold. Exact score ties are broken deterministically by relation-group id before percentile ranking. The confidence panel applies the same group averaging and model-wise rank normalization to original-answer confidence. Blind Gap is text-only accuracy minus 50% chance; Visual Gain is original-image accuracy minus text-only accuracy. Because retaining a relation group preserves one true and one false statement, text-only accuracy is structurally constrained near 50% when a model gives both members the same answer; Blind Gap is reported for comparability, while accuracy, Visual Gain, and Dep. carry the filtering interpretation. Keep Filter Acc. Blind gap Visual gain Dep. 100% Full benchmark 75.68 −0.40-0.40 26.08 62.24 25% Shortcut Score 85.11 0.00 35.11 73.64 25% VisNec-style 82.05 0.00 32.05 67.73 25% Confidence panel 84.89 0.11 34.77 71.93 25% VCA panel 85.23 0.57 34.66 74.43 50% Shortcut Score 83.98 0.06 33.92 71.70 50% VisNec-style 79.77 −0.74-0.74 30.51 66.65 50% Confidence panel 82.61 −0.28-0.28 32.90 70.91 50% VCA panel 83.52 −0.11-0.11 33.64 70.74 75% Shortcut Score 80.68 −0.38-0.38 31.06 67.12 75% VisNec-style 78.03 −0.53-0.53 28.56 64.43 75% Confidence panel 79.81 −0.34-0.34 30.15 66.63 75% VCA panel 79.55 −0.19-0.19 29.73 65.76 Table 25: Macro leave-one-model-out filtering on GSR-COCO. Shortcut Score and VisNec-style use gold labels; confidence and the VCA dependence panel do not. Dep. is the held-out model’s prediction-aligned dependence rate and is unused by all filters. At the primary 50% coverage, 5,000 relation-group bootstrap resamples give VCA-minus-Shortcut differences of −0.45-0.45 [−1.64-1.64,+0.64+0.64] for accuracy, −0.17-0.17 [−0.73-0.73,+0.43+0.43] for Blind Gap, and −0.28-0.28 [−1.70-1.70,+1.01+1.01] for Visual Gain. Against confidence, the corresponding differences are +0.91+0.91 [−0.15-0.15,+1.98+1.98], +0.17+0.17 [−0.43-0.43,+0.77+0.77], and +0.74+0.74 [−0.45-0.45,+1.95+1.95]. Against VisNec-style, they are +3.75+3.75 [+2.19+2.19,+5.37+5.37], +0.62+0.62 [−0.23-0.23,+1.52+1.52], and +3.12+3.12 [+1.32+1.32,+4.91+4.91]. Thus the VCA dependence panel improves accuracy and Visual Gain over the VisNec-style panel and reaches comparable aggregate outcomes to Shortcut Score and confidence. The panel has 67.52% macro Jaccard overlap with Shortcut Score, 43.36% with VisNec-style, and 64.74% with confidence, showing that these outcomes arise from distinct selections. A direct probability-gap average yields 31.19 Visual Gain at 50%, supporting model-wise rank normalization whenever likelihood scales are aggregated across architectures. Overall, the label-free VCA panel transfers its prediction-aligned audit semantics to unlabeled benchmark triage. Object-Swap Construction Details The constructor seeded-shuffled 440 positive relation groups; 114 passed fixed center-gap, overlap, and image-boundary checks, while 326 failed the in-bounds swap constraint. All 114 feasible edits entered the construct audit. The renderer requires a post-swap center gap of at least 0.05 image extent and new-box IoU at most 0.20, removes each source patch with 4-pixel padding and Telea inpainting radius 3, and pastes with a 3-pixel feather. These values are fixed before model scoring. Three distinct non-author volunteers received no compensation. After brief instruction on the label definitions and workflow, all gave informed consent. Institutional policy did not require formal ethics review for this low-risk annotation task. Each independently assessed a separately shuffled, blinded batch. Model margins, outcome strata, and sample identifiers were hidden, and 10% repeated items measured within-annotator consistency. Majority consensus required the original relation to be valid, the edited relation to flip, both edited objects to remain visible, and artifacts not to block judgment. Consensus accepted 108 edits, rejected four, and left two three-way ties unresolved. Pairwise agreement across the four fields is 90.12–96.30%, and repeat agreement is 100%. The low-risk task involved judgments of edited public-dataset images; no demographic, behavioral, or sensitive personal data were collected. Audit outcome N Rate Geometry-feasible candidates 114 100.00 Accepted by majority consensus 108 94.74 Rejected by majority consensus 4 3.51 No majority (three-way tie) 2 1.75 Table 26: Object-swap construct audit after majority consensus. The audit reduces the concern that the reported flip target is driven by unreadable edits. It does not turn patch swaps into photorealistic semantic edits; the no-edit SRC analysis provides a complementary validation without that rendering concern. Feasibility-selection audit. The 114/440 candidate rule is fixed geometry: no model outputs, VCA scores, or edited outcomes enter selection. We compare these candidates with the 326 excluded source pairs using pair bootstrap intervals. Source characteristic Feasible Excluded Difference [95% CI] Horizontal relation 69.30 61.35 +7.95+7.95 [−2.18-2.18,+17.99+17.99] Larger-box area 13.91 23.18 −9.27-9.27 [−11.01-11.01,−7.55-7.55] Center gap 42.68 50.38 −7.70-7.70 [−10.10-10.10,−5.31-5.31] Destination slack 5.30 −10.99-10.99 +16.29+16.29 [+15.15+15.15,+17.47+17.47] Qwen source D-C 91.23 83.74 +7.49+7.49 [+0.60+0.60,+13.98+13.98] InternVL source D-C 59.65 46.63 +13.02+13.02 [+2.55+2.55,+23.63+23.63] LLaVA source D-C 88.60 85.58 +3.01+3.01 [−4.40-4.40,+9.90+9.90] Ministral source D-C 65.79 62.27 +3.52+3.52 [−6.79-6.79,+13.61+13.61] Table 27: Geometry-feasibility selection audit over all 440 source pairs. Areas, distances, rates, and D-C are percentages of image extent or examples as applicable. Feasibility favors smaller boxes with sufficient destination clearance; the horizontal/vertical composition difference is not distinguishable from zero. Qwen and InternVL source outcomes are easier on the feasible subset, whereas LLaVA and Ministral intervals cross zero. The audit excludes outcome-driven selection but limits generalization of the edit experiment to geometry-compatible object swaps. Non-Core Probe Sensitivity Table 28 separates the primary Text+Blank definition from two stricter diagnostics. Strict T/B requires both controls to favor the opposite original answer. Dep+M adds random mismatch to the maximum-support control, while Strict+M combines mismatch with opposite-answer isolation. These columns are not alternative headline scores. Model Data Dep Strict T/B Dep+M Strict+M Mean GimgG^img Qwen VSR 71.10 48.68 62.21 47.72 2.476 Qwen GSR-COCO 81.82 42.84 74.89 40.23 2.953 InternVL VSR 57.01 6.57 50.52 3.36 0.297 InternVL GSR-COCO 42.84 10.45 37.73 8.07 -0.264 LLaVA VSR 76.38 21.54 75.58 20.58 1.072 LLaVA GSR-COCO 64.55 5.91 59.66 5.45 0.651 Ministral VSR 63.33 13.93 52.12 5.44 0.898 Ministral GSR-COCO 59.77 24.43 45.00 6.82 0.605 Table 28: Sensitivity to stricter and mismatch-inclusive definitions. Mismatch lowers Dep by 0.80–14.77 points across these settings, but it does not change the qualitative finding that accuracy exceeds D-C. The much larger collapse under strict isolation is explained by its answer-direction requirement rather than by a lack of image contribution alone. Matched Image-Permutation Calibration The aggregate calibration preserves the exact audited decision: di=sign(mi,o)d_i=sign(m_i,o) remains fixed while the original-image margin is replaced by the cached deterministic same-split image-permutation margin. This asks whether unrelated visual content reproduces support for the original decision under the same text-only and blank controls. Model Data D-C Perm. D-C ΔDCCperm _ DCC perm [95% CI] Qwen VSR 58.53 31.22 27.30 [23.38,31.31] Qwen GSR-COCO 78.18 39.32 38.86 [35.23,42.50] InternVL VSR 39.55 13.53 26.02 [23.46,28.74] InternVL GSR-COCO 34.43 13.18 21.25 [18.64,23.86] LLaVA VSR 51.56 3.76 47.80 [44.92,50.76] LLaVA GSR-COCO 55.68 13.07 42.61 [39.77,45.34] Ministral VSR 48.52 14.09 34.43 [31.63,37.23] Ministral GSR-COCO 55.34 22.05 33.30 [30.57,36.02] Table 29: Fixed-direction image-permutation calibration (%). ΔDCCperm _ DCC perm is the paired difference between original-image and permutation D-C while the original decision and correctness label remain fixed. Intervals use 5,000 paired bootstrap resamples, clustered by GSR relation pair. The original image yields 21.25–47.80 more D-C points in all eight runs, and every paired interval excludes zero. Because accuracy is fixed, C-Uperm−C-Uorig=ΔDCCpermC -U perm-C -U orig= _ DCC perm exactly. Correct original-only assignments span 22.73–49.72% of each run, whereas correct permutation-only assignments span 0.91–15.13%. Thus the result is a paired calibration of the headline correctness–credit decomposition, not only of the all-decision Dep rate. Control Aggregation The max-control definition is fixed by the conjunction in VCA: positive credit requires original-image support to exceed each no-image control. We nevertheless compare signed alternatives and distributional distances using the same cached margins. Agreement and Spearman ρ are summarized across all eight model–dataset runs. No variant is tuned on either external target. Signal Mean agr. Min agr. ρ SRC Swap ro−rtr_o-r_t 88.85 71.59 0.899 71.28 66.20 ro−rbr_o-r_b 90.83 81.14 0.920 71.41 69.03 ro−(rt+rb)/2r_o-(r_t+r_b)/2 88.92 77.61 0.979 72.59 68.63 ro−max(rt,rb)r_o- (r_t,r_b) 100.00 100.00 1.000 72.97 69.15 Probability max 100.00 100.00 0.947 68.22 63.38 Minimum JS 64.97 42.84 0.595 66.76 64.34 Table 30: Control aggregation sensitivity across eight runs. External columns macro-average within-model AUROC; Swap is the primary flip+visibility target on the 108 accepted edits. The signed margin variants retain strong agreement and external ranking, so the result is not peculiar to one score parameterization. Probability differences preserve every binary credit decision but compress within-model rankings. Exponentiating a signed log-odds gap gives an odds ratio with identical ordering. Unsigned JS instead detects any distribution change, including movement away from the original decision, and is therefore not a substitute for prediction-aligned credit. We do not fit a label-calibrated probability variant, because doing so would introduce the held-out labels that the dependence event is designed to avoid. On the independent Swap target, max-control AUROC is 69.15 versus 66.20, 69.03, and 68.63 for text-only, blank-only, and mean aggregation, respectively; original confidence reaches 67.90. These are unadjusted rankings, while the edit-grouped incremental analysis above remains the adjusted test. Control set Credit C-U Agr. C-U Jacc. Text + fixed blank 65.01 19.07 100.00 100.00 Text + mean-color blank 62.55 20.89 96.44 88.01 Text + fixed blank + mismatch 57.71 25.02 92.71 76.21 Table 31: Micro-pooled item stability over 8,516 records. C-U is correct-but-uncredited as a fraction of all records; agreement and C-U Jaccard are relative to the headline fixed-blank definition. Across all three sets, 7,646/8,516 (89.78%) records retain the same credit assignment. Their C-U intersection contains 1,593 records and their union 2,274 (18.71% and 26.70% of all records); 1,593/1,624 (98.09%) headline C-U records remain in the intersection. Per-run stable assignment spans 78.46–98.48%, and headline C-U retention spans 90.95–100.00%. Thus added controls enlarge the boundary set but rarely reverse the original C-U core. Cached-Context Proxy Comparison We adapt named modality-use and grounding metrics to the same cached records. Perceptual Score is the sample accuracy difference between the original and the fixed same-split image permutation, and therefore uses benchmark labels. VisNec-style is the gold-answer loss reduction from the cached text-only control to the original image; unlike exact VisNec, it does not use model-specific visual-token masking or semantic clustering. Permutation drop is the prediction-aligned probability decrease under that permutation. For the pixel-adapted FPVG and sufficiency/comprehensiveness baselines, IrrE approximates a relevant-only view and RelE an irrelevant-only view. This adaptation is not the original detector-feature implementation, and inherits the erasure limitations detailed below. No baseline is tuned on either external target. Fu et al. (2026) define a label-dependent per-instance null-input baseline and modality gain, contrast images with generated captions, and report normalized Visual Dependence at the model–benchmark level. VCA instead assigns a label-free event and signed gap to each fixed decision and separately tests same-image relation interaction. For a direct common-record comparison, we adapt their normalized accuracy-drop view to the mean accuracy of our text-only and blank controls: Model VSR aggregate VD GSR-COCO aggregate VD Qwen 42.67 45.94 InternVL 9.21 13.72 LLaVA 29.78 38.83 Ministral 17.64 30.29 Table 32: Label-dependent aggregate visual dependence, using the normalized accuracy drop from original to mean text-only/blank accuracy. SRC (4 models) Swap strict (4 models) Signal AUROC AUPRC AUROC AUPRC Confidence 73.66 69.73 76.45 63.73 VisNec-style 58.52 56.83 50.69 38.50 Perceptual Score 62.23 57.32 53.50 40.52 Permutation drop 64.31 60.65 60.72 48.75 FPVG-style 59.89 56.28 51.37 39.32 −-Sufficiency 51.10 51.67 46.65 34.74 Comprehensiveness 63.78 60.05 60.31 47.04 Comp.–Suff. 64.13 60.11 61.71 47.53 Raw image gap 72.97 67.09 75.39 61.25 Table 33: Macro-average within-model cached-context proxy comparison. Swap uses all four models on the same 108 accepted edits and the strict composite target; named baselines use common-context adaptations. Under these cached-context adaptations, confidence and the VCA gap are the two strongest signals on both checks; confidence is slightly stronger. Among the adapted modality-ablation and region-grounding signals, the VCA gap has the strongest macro AUROC. These common-context adaptations isolate score behavior on identical records; the original methods’ model-specific masking, auxiliary text model, and semantic clustering remain outside this comparison. Surface-Form Robustness We score the complete VSR and GSR-COCO test sets under the canonical Yes/No interface, a semantically matched True/False interface, and an untuned ensemble that averages their aligned margins in each context. The ensemble uses no labels, fitting, or development selection. True/False Ensemble Model Data Acc Dep D-C Acc Dep D-C Qwen VSR 76.06 61.65 54.92 80.22 67.17 58.53 Qwen GSR 84.43 74.77 72.73 89.66 80.45 77.95 InternVL VSR 62.93 66.69 47.40 64.85 67.57 48.68 InternVL GSR 67.50 74.55 55.68 76.25 64.09 54.09 LLaVA VSR 77.82 70.30 53.64 74.86 72.78 51.40 LLaVA GSR 81.14 75.57 67.16 83.07 67.05 58.98 Ministral VSR 73.34 83.75 64.21 68.21 72.86 56.93 Ministral GSR 83.41 90.68 78.52 79.77 76.25 69.43 Table 34: Full-test multi-verbalizer results. Ensemble averages Yes/No and True/False margins before applying the unchanged VCA rule. Under the ensemble, 10.34–24.09% of decisions are correct but uncredited. Against canonical Yes/No, ensemble agreement spans 73.75–95.11% for original predictions, 63.30–92.55% for Dep, and 72.39–97.44% for D-C. Accuracy rankings are unchanged on VSR and GSR-COCO (ρ=1.00ρ=1.00); D-C rankings remain strongly aligned (ρ=0.80ρ=0.80 on each). These complete-test results support the prespecified ensemble as an aggregate surface check. Where inverse relation statements are available, the pair-centered contrast below more directly cancels answer-surface offsets shared by the true and false statements. Model Data n Item flip Pair flip Pair Jacc. Qwen VSR 504 23.61 3.37 96.23 Qwen GSR 440 16.82 2.27 97.60 InternVL VSR 504 47.22 27.98 62.80 InternVL GSR 440 49.89 20.91 72.70 LLaVA VSR 504 8.73 5.36 93.95 LLaVA GSR 440 29.89 3.64 96.01 Ministral VSR 504 26.39 10.91 86.59 Ministral GSR 440 34.09 5.23 94.21 Table 35: Yes/No–True/False event stability on identical records. Item flip is per-question dependence disagreement; Pair flip and Jacc. use PairCredit=Gint>0PairCredit= 1\G int>0\. GSR uses all 440 benchmark-provided true/false groups. For VSR, we construct inverse queries only for positive items with structured subject and object fields in the six strict families left/right, above/below, and front/behind. This yields 504 same-image, same-object-pair groups; 35 candidates without structured entities are excluded before scoring. Pair differencing lowers event flips in every model–dataset comparison, although the InternVL/VSR residual shows that verbalizer–prompt interaction is not purely an additive token offset. We separately use the same 200 VSR examples, stratified over above, below, left, and right, for diagnostics not covered by the full test: three relation wordings and a neutral Qwen system instruction. Paraphrase rows pool 600 query instances; agreement averages the two synonyms against the canonical wording. Form Model Acc D-C Pred. Credit Paraphrase Qwen 78.00 64.00 83.75 79.25 Paraphrase InternVL 59.67 42.17 97.00 74.25 Paraphrase LLaVA 67.00 54.67 84.25 79.00 System Qwen 81.00 65.50 88.00 82.00 Table 36: Additional fixed-200 VSR wording diagnostics. The selected yes, no, true, and false continuations are one token under each model’s scoring backend, so the comparison does not mix answer identity with continuation length. We do not treat unequal multi-token sentences as equivalent logits. The Qwen system diagnostic uses the neutral instruction “Answer the user’s question with exactly yes or no,” rather than prompting the model to rely more heavily on the image. Visual-Control Robustness We replace the fixed mid-gray canvas with a per-image uniform mean color on the complete VSR and GSR-COCO tests for all four models. Both controls are content-free; mean color additionally preserves each image’s dimensions and first-order color average. Original and text-only scores are unchanged. Model Data N Acc Fixed Mean Agree ρ Qwen VSR 1249 79.42 58.53 57.65 98.00 .997 Qwen GSR 880 90.91 78.18 77.61 99.09 .996 InternVL VSR 1249 58.69 39.55 38.75 97.92 .993 InternVL GSR 880 58.41 34.43 33.75 98.52 .996 LLaVA VSR 1249 69.90 51.56 50.92 99.04 .999 LLaVA GSR 880 81.93 55.68 51.93 95.91 .992 Ministral VSR 1249 64.45 48.52 44.76 89.43 .912 Ministral GSR 880 71.48 55.34 51.36 94.20 .962 Table 37: Full-test fixed-gray versus mean-color controls. Fixed and Mean report D-C; Agree is per-item credit agreement, and ρ is Spearman correlation between continuous dependence gaps. Mean color changes D-C by −0.57-0.57 to −3.98-3.98 points, with 89.43–99.09% credit agreement and ρ=0.912ρ=0.912–0.999. Under this alternate control, D-C remains 13.30–30.00 points below accuracy in every model–dataset run. The central empirical gap is therefore not specific to a single gray value, while the shifts quantify residual control sensitivity. A separate fixed-200 pilot also included strong blur and deterministic 8×88\!×\!8 patch shuffle. Because these retain or degrade semantic content, they are stress probes rather than empty controls and do not enter the headline credit definition. Reproducibility Details Each run contains matched original, text-only, and blank margins. We group by sample id, fix prediction direction, and preserve 440 supplied GSR-COCO pairs; no stochastic sampling, learned scorer, or label-selected threshold is used. Dependence intervals use 5,000 bootstraps (seed 20260719), and semantic H–L intervals use 2,000. GSR intervals resample relation-pair ids, and swap intervals resample edit ids while retaining all model records in each cluster. Factorial model-level conditional proportions use two-sided 95% Wilson intervals. Pooled intervals use 5,000 resamples of procedural stem ids with seed 20260724 and retain all four model records for each sampled stem. Generation is fixed before model scoring and checked for complete cells, direction balance, and exact context reuse. Cross-backbone summaries macro-average metrics computed within model. Qwen, InternVL, and LLaVA scoring uses Python 3.13.5, PyTorch 2.6.0+cu124, and Transformers 4.57.3; Ministral uses Python 3.13.5, the same PyTorch build, and Transformers 5.15.0.dev0 for model support. Experiments run on eight NVIDIA RTX A6000 48GB GPUs with native model processors and bfloat16 model weights (Ministral resolves its checkpoint-native automatic dtype). Prompt serialization, selected answer strings, continuation losses, model predictions, and margins are stored per record rather than reconstructed from aggregate tables. The anonymous submission artifact includes the complete source, exact prompt and chat serialization, deterministic GSR conversion and factorial builders, all 1,800 factorial inputs per model, accepted edits, and deidentified annotation decisions.