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Consistency-Driven Co-Evolution for Self-Supervised Cross-Representation Learning
Xuehang Guo, Pengyuan Li, Tom Hope, Tirthankar Ghosal, Manling Li, Qingyun Wang
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Abstract
Abstract:As chart images, tabular data, and visualization code play increasingly important roles across diverse domains, cross-representation understanding across these modalities poses fundamental challenges for AI systems: the relationships across representations are inherently \textit{one-to-many}, supervision is ambiguous and costly, and model optimization lacks a principled signal that is both direction-adaptive and representation-generalizable beyond task-specific objectives. We introduce CoCoEvolve to improve consistency across chart, table, and code representations. Instead of treating cross-representation mapping as a one-to-many problem, we define explicit one-to-one correspondences and optimize models using agreement between representations, without additional annotations. During training, CoCoEvolve@Train performs co-evolution across the chart-table-code cycle, while CoCoEvolve@Test applies the same consistency objective at inference time for test-time co-optimization. We also present CoCoEvolve@Eval, an evaluation suite covering all six cross-representation tasks. Across four benchmarks, CoCoEvolve improves performance in both training-time and test-time settings. Our project page: this https URL.
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Consistency-Driven Co-Evolution for Self-Supervised Cross-Representation Learning Xuehang Guo1 Pengyuan Li2 Tom Hope3 Tirthankar Ghosal4 Manling Li5 Qingyun Wang1 1William & Mary 2IBM 3Allen Institute for AI 4Oak Ridge National Laboratory 5Northwestern University Abstract As chart images, tabular data, and visualization code play increasingly important roles across diverse domains, cross-representation understanding across these modalities poses fundamental challenges for AI systems: the relationships across representations are inherently one-to-many, supervision is ambiguous and costly, and model optimization lacks a principled signal that is both direction-adaptive and representation-generalizable beyond task-specific objectives. We introduce CoCoEvolve to improve consistency across chart, table, and code representations. Instead of treating cross-representation mapping as a one-to-many problem, we define explicit one-to-one correspondences and optimize models using agreement between representations, without additional annotations. During training, CoCoEvolve@Train performs co-evolution across the chart-table-code cycle, while CoCoEvolve@Test applies the same consistency objective at inference time for test-time co-optimization. We also present CoCoEvolve@Eval, an evaluation suite covering all six cross-representation tasks. Across four benchmarks, CoCoEvolve improves performance in both training-time and test-time settings. Our project page: https://xhguo7.github.io/CoCoEvolve/. †footnotetext: Correspondence to: Xuehang Guo <xguo15@wm.edu>, Qingyun Wang <qwang16@wm.edu>. 1 Introduction Figure 1: Chart-Table-Code Representation Cycle. Cross-representation understanding across six tasks poses great challenges for model learning and optimization due to its inherent one-to-many nature, supervision ambiguity, and high computational cost (§1). Chart images are ubiquitous across scientific publications (Wang et al., 2024b; Yang et al., 2025b; Guo et al., 2026), financial reports (Shu et al., 2025), data analyses (Huang et al., 2024), etc. The structured information they convey can be expressed in multiple forms (Zhao et al., 2025; Tang et al., 2025; Zhao et al., 2025): a chart image encodes data visually through axes, marks, and layouts; a data table represents the core information in structured tabular form; and visualization code captures the declarative logic that transforms data into visual output. Understanding and reasoning across different domains and representations poses great challenges for AI systems, as it demands not merely visual perception but precise structural cross-modal understanding: the ability to reason about data semantics, encode logic, and establish representational correspondence across modalities. A central bottleneck in cross-representation understanding is the ambiguity and cost of supervision. The relationships across chart images, tabular data, and rendering code are inherently one-to-many: a single chart image may correspond to multiple valid tabular representations, and equally, multiple valid rendering programs. This means each chart-table-code instance requires annotating a large space of potential correspondences, making labeled supervision not only expensive to produce at scale, but fundamentally ill-addressed by existing benchmarks (Kondic et al., 2026) that unconstrained one-to-one ground truths (§B.1). A principled constraint definition is needed to ground such one-to-many mappings to precise one-to-one correspondences (§3.1). Chart images are abundant, yet accurately labeled cross-representation correspondences remain scarce and poorly defined. Compounding this, even with principled constraint definitions in place, it remains challenging to establish a principled optimization signal that is both direction-adaptive and representation-generalizable. A model trained on fixed chart-to-table or chart-to-code pairs can exhibit degraded performance not only on the trained tasks (chart-to-table & chart-to-code), but also on tasks in the reversed direction (e.g., table-to-chart) or with unseen representation combinations (e.g., table-to-code) (§B.2). Such task-specific objectives operate locally on fixed representation pairs and cannot enforce global semantic correctness or generalize to unseen directions and representation combinations. This calls for a principled supervision paradigm: one that operates agnostically across tasks, directions, and representations, enforcing global semantic correctness without relying on fixed ground-truth labels. Key Insight With a principled constraint definition (§3.1), chart, table, and visualization code are placed on equal footing as multiple representations of the same underlying semantics. If each representation is correct, they should mutually agree — this agreement can serve as a principled optimization signal requiring no annotation and remaining agnostic to tasks, directions, and representations (§B.3). Building on these insights, we introduce CoCoEvolve (§3), a consistency-driven co-evolve framework that jointly addresses both challenges. By proposing a principled constraint definition (§3.1), CoCoEvolve unambiguously grounds one-to-many mappings to precise one-to-one correspondences. Also, rather than relying on labeled correspondences and task-specific learning, CoCoEvolve leverages cross-representation agreement as a principled, annotation-free optimization signal that is agnostic to tasks, directions, and representations, training models through a representation cycle that enforces global semantic correctness at scale. To sum up, our main contributions are: 1 We introduce a principled constraint definition (§3.1) that explicitly addresses the inherent one-to-many ambiguity overlooked by existing benchmarks and methods. 2 We present CoCoEvolve (§3), a co-evolution framework that turns cross-representation consistency into a principled self-supervision signal, enabling annotation-free optimization at both train (§3.2) and test time (§3.3). 3 We propose a systematic and unified evaluation suite (§3.5) for all tasks in the cycle (§3.1), addressing the key limitations of existing LLM- and MLLM-based evaluation approaches. 4 Experiments demonstrate that CoCoEvolve effectively enhances model cross-representation understanding abilities, yielding up to ↑37.91% 37.91\% gains on the non-overlapping test set, and is generalizable to out-of-domain settings with improvements of up to ↑46.88% 46.88\% (§4). 2 Related Work Cross-Representation Learning. Recent work shows promising progress on individual edges of the chart-table-code representation cycle (§3.1). Chart-to-table extraction focuses on recovering structured tabular data from chart images (Meng et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2023; Kondic et al., 2026), while chart-to-code generation targets the visualization program underlying a chart (Yang et al., 2025b; Tang et al., 2025; Zhao et al., 2025; Kondic et al., 2026), leveraging code-capable multimodal models to reproduce the rendering logic. However, these lines of work share a common limitation: they treat each edge as an independent supervised task, requiring costly labeled correspondences and ignoring the natural semantic redundancy across three representations. This reveals the critical cross-representation learning gap that our work aims to bridge via co-evolution. Self-Supervised Cycle Learning. Self-supervised learning shows its strengths in annotation-free learning across various domains (Chen and Krishnan, 2021; Fang and Xie, 2022; Li et al., 2024). Cycle consistency, as a self-supervision signal, is introduced in the vision domain by CycleGAN (Zhu et al., 2017), revealing that unpaired cross-domain translation can be learned by enforcing round-trip reconstruction. This principle has since been extended to language (Shen et al., 2025) and vision settings (Adrian et al., 2024). However, existing approaches either rely on single representations that are poorly suited for structured cross-modal reasoning or are limited to specific domains. This motivates our consistency-driven co-evolution framework that unifies cycle consistency and co-training into a single annotation-free paradigm for multimodal cross-representation learning. 3 Method Figure 2: CoCoEvolve Overview. We introduce the consistency-driven co-evolution framework. Dashed arrows (- - -) denote gradient updates at training time; models are frozen at test time. 3.1 Cross-Representation Learning Problem Formulation. Let V, T, and C denote the spaces of chart images, tabular data, and visualization code, respectively. We study the problem of cross-representation understanding as six tasks in a representation cycle across these three spaces: ⇔V , ⇔T , and ⇔V . Representation Cycle. We define three directional mappings that together constitute the chart-table-code cycle: fθ:→,gψ:→,h:→f_θ:V , g_ψ:T , h:C (1) where fθf_θ performs chart-to-table decoding of a chart image v∈v into a tabular representation t∈t , gψg_ψ performs table-to-code generation from tabular data t∈t to visualization sandbox c∈c , and h denotes a deterministic code executor that renders c back into a chart image. Together, these form a full cycle h∘gψ∘fθ:→h g_ψ f_θ:V . Principled Constraint Definition. Existing work (Kondic et al., 2026) fails to reasonably account for the inherent one-to-many nature of cross-representation mappings (§1). To mitigate this ambiguity, we augment gψg_ψ with auxiliary constraints s∈s , where S denotes the space of descriptive constraints, and each sis_i conditions the alignment of tit_i and cic_i with respect to viv_i. gψ(⋅∣s):→g_ψ(· s):T (2) where gψ(⋅∣s)g_ψ(· s) represents a family of conditioned table-to-code mappings gψ(⋅∣s):s∈g_ψ(· s):s . 3.2 CoCoEvolve@Train: Train-Time Consistency-Driven Co-Evolution By sharing a chart-table-code representation cycle (§3.1), CoCoEvolve enables the co-evolution of two models, MθM_θ and MψM_ψ, jointly over unannotated chart images =vV=\v\, where πθ _θ and πψ _ψ (Eq.8) denote the respective policies parameterizing fθ:→f_θ:V (Eq.1) and gψ:→g_ψ:T (Eq.2). Leveraging hierarchical consistency-driven training signals below, CoCoEvolve proposes a novel co-evolution objective (Eq.8) that serves as a drop-in training signal for existing RL algorithms, such as GRPO (Shao et al., 2024), DAPO (Yu et al., 2025), and GSPO (Zheng et al., 2025). Code Consistency Reward. cF_c measures semantic agreement between c^θ c_θ and c^ψ c_ψ through execution success and embedding similarity: c(π)(c^θ,c^ψ)=ωe(π)⋅[h(c^θ)∧h(c^ψ)]+ωs(π)⋅simc(c^θ,c^ψ)F_c^(π)( c_θ, c_ψ)= _e^(π)· 1[h( c_θ) h( c_ψ)]+ _s^(π)· sim_c( c_θ, c_ψ) (3) where π∈θ,ψπ∈\θ,ψ\ indexes the model, and ωe(π),ωs(π) _e^(π), _s^(π) are per-model sub-weights. where simc sim_c is a normalized cosine similarity: simc(ca,cb)=[cos(ea,eb)−cos(ea,ebase)1−cos(ea,ebase)]01 sim_c(c_a,c_b)= [ 0.92$ (e_a,e_b)- (e_a,e_base)1- (e_a,e_base)$ ]_0^1 (4) where eae_a and ebe_b are embeddings of cac_a and cbc_b, ebasee_base is the baseline embedding anchoring similarity above generic code patterns, and [⋅]01[·]_0^1 denotes clamping to [0,1][0,1]. Visual Consistency Reward. vF_v measures visual agreement between two rendered chart images through four complementary metrics, gated on code execution success: v(π)(va,vb)=∑mωm(π)⋅Fm(va,vb)F_v^(π)(v_a,v_b)= _m _m^(π)· F_m(v_a,v_b) (5) where m∈clip,ssim,ocr,dinom∈\clip,ssim,ocr,dino\, and Fm∈Fclip,Fdino,Fssim,FocrF_m∈\F_clip,F_dino,F_ssim,F_ocr\ (Eq.20,21,22,23) covers four complementary dimensions of chart evaluation (§F.1.1), respectively. Format Reward. fF_f enforces well-formed structured outputs as a binary reward: f(c,π)=[formatπ(c)]F_f(c,π)= 1 [ format_π(c) ] (6) where formatπ(c) format_π(c) is a model-specific boolean predicate that verifies if c conforms to the output format required by model π∈πθ,πψπ∈\ _θ, _ψ\. Hierarchical Reward. The full hierarchical reward for each model aggregates the above components: Rπ=λf(π)f(c^π)+λc(π)c(π)(c^θ,c^ψ)+λπv(π)(v^π,v)+λv(π)v(π)(v^θ,v^ψ)R_π= _f^(π)F_f( c_π)+ _c^(π)F_c^(π)( c_θ, c_ψ)+ _πF_v^(π)( v_π,v)+ _v^(π)F_v^(π)( v_θ, v_ψ) (7) where π∈θ,ψπ∈\θ,ψ\, and v^π=h(c^π) v_π=h( c_π) denotes the rendered chart image of model π via h (Eq.1). The shared reward terms cF_c (Eq.3) and v(v^θ,v^ψ)F_v( v_θ, v_ψ) (Eq.5) enforce mutual agreement between two models, while v(v^θ,v)F_v( v_θ,v) and v(v^ψ,v)F_v( v_ψ,v) (Eq.5) independently ground each model against the original v, preventing degenerate solutions where both models collude to produce mutually consistent but semantically incorrect outputs. Co-Evolve Training Objective. Unlike independent multi-task learning, πθ _θ and πψ _ψ are coupled through both sampling and reward: πψ _ψ conditions on πθ _θ’s output (s^(i),t^(i))( s^(i), t^(i)), and each model’s advantage is derived from a reward functional that depends on the other model’s output. For each chart image v∈v , πθ _θ draws KθK_θ rollouts oθ(i)∼πθ,old(⋅∣v)o_θ^(i) _θ,old(· v); and for each rollout oθ(i)=(s^(i),t^(i),c^θ(i))o_θ^(i)=( s^(i), t^(i), c_θ^(i)), πψ _ψ draws KψK_ψ conditioned rollouts oψ(i,k)∼πψ,old(⋅∣s^(i),t^(i))o_ψ^(i,k) _ψ,old(· s^(i), t^(i)). The joint objective is (§D): (θ,ψ)=voθ(i)∼πθ,old(⋅∣v)oψ(i,k)∼πψ,old(⋅∣s^(i),t^(i))[1Kθ∑i=1Kθℒθ(i)⏟πθ surrogate+1KθKψ∑i=1Kθ∑k=1Kψℒψ(i,k)⏟πψ surrogate]J(θ,ψ)=E_v\,E_ subarrayco_θ^(i) _θ,old(· v)\\ o_ψ^(i,k) _ψ,old(· s^(i), t^(i)) subarray\! [ 1K_θ _i=1^K_θL_θ^(i)_ _θ surrogate+ 1K_θK_ψ _i=1^K_θ _k=1^K_ψL_ψ^(i,k)_ _ψ surrogate ] (8) 3.3 CoCoEvolve@Test: Test-Time Consistency-Driven Co-Optimization Mirroring co-training, CoCoEvolve further optimizes MθM_θ and MψM_ψ at test time. Given an input chart image v, CoCoEvolve produces the best outputs from both models: cψ(k∗)=argmaxk∈[Kψ]Rψ(c^ψ(k)∣argmaxi∈[Kθ]Rθ(oθ(i)∣v))c_ψ^(k^*)= *arg\,max_k∈[K_ψ]R_ψ\! ( c_ψ^(k) *arg\,max_i∈[K_θ]R_θ\! (o_θ^(i) v ) ) (9) where oθ(i)=(s^(i),t^(i),c^θ(i))∼fθ(⋅∣v)o_θ^(i)=( s^(i), t^(i), c_θ^(i)) f_θ(· v) are KθK_θ candidate rollouts from fθf_θ, cψ(k)∼gψ(⋅∣s^(i∗),t^(i∗))c_ψ^(k) g_ψ(· s^(i^*), t^(i^*)) are KψK_ψ candidate rollouts from gψg_ψ conditioned on the best fθf_θ output oθ(i∗)o_θ^(i^*). RθR_θ and RψR_ψ (Eq.7) serve as annotation-free signals for test-time optimization. The final outputs (t^(i∗),c^θ(i∗),c^ψ(k∗))( t^(i^*), c_θ^(i^*), c_ψ^(k^*)) cover all three representations of the cycle across six tasks (§3.1). 3.4 Seamless Extension to Supervised Consistency-Driven Co-Learning When high-quality annotations are available, CoCoEvolve is also seamlessly extensible to supervised settings at both train and test time via an optional teacher module M. Teacher-Guided Grounding. For a fraction τ of samples per batch, ℳ M replaces πθ _θ’s outputs (s^(i),t^(i))( s^(i), t^(i)) with ground-truth (sgt,tgt)(s_gt,t_gt) as πψ _ψ’s conditioning context, decoupling πψ _ψ from πθ _θ’s potentially corrupted outputs on those samples. Formally, for each sample, the conditioning context is: (s^ψ(i),t^ψ(i))=(sgt,tgt)p=α(s^(i),t^(i))p=1−α( s^(i)_ψ, t^(i)_ψ)= cases(s_gt,t_gt)& p=α\\ ( s^(i), t^(i))& p=1-α cases (10) where p denotes sampling probability. In practice, we implement ℳM via stratified sampling with randomized rounding where exactly ⌊αB⌋ α B or ⌊αB⌋+1 α B +1 samples per batch of size B are teacher-guided, ensuring the minimum-variance unbiased estimator of the target fraction α under a fixed batch size. Teacher Reward. When ℳM is enabled, πθ _θ receives two additional grounding rewards: Rs R_s =s(θ)(s^,sgt)=cos(ϕ(s^),ϕ(sgt)) =F_s^(θ)( s,s_gt)= (φ( s),φ(s_gt)) (11) Rt R_t =t(θ)(t^,tgt)=∑mωm(θ)⋅Fm(t^,tgt) =F_t^(θ)( t,t_gt)= _m _m^(θ)· F_m( t,t_gt) (12) where m∈schema,valuem∈\schema,value\, ϕ(⋅)φ(·) is a sentence embedding function via SentenceBERT (Reimers and Gurevych, 2019), and Fm∈Fschema,FvalueF_m∈\F_schema,F_value\ denote column-level schema F1 and cell-level value F1 over all (row,column,value)(row,column,value) triples, respectively. The full πθ _θ reward under teacher mode extends from Eq.7 to become: Rθ+=λf(θ)f(c^θ)+λc(θ)c(θ)(c^θ,c^ψ)+λθv(θ)(v^θ,v)+λv(θ)v(θ)(v^θ,v^ψ)+λs(θ)Rs+λt(θ)RtR_θ^+= _f^(θ)F_f( c_θ)+ _c^(θ)F_c^(θ)( c_θ, c_ψ)+ _θF_v^(θ)( v_θ,v)+ _v^(θ)F_v^(θ)( v_θ, v_ψ)+ _s^(θ)R_s+ _t^(θ)R_t (13) Linear Annealing. For robust co-evolution, CoCoEvolve@Train incorporate a teacher-guidance fraction α linearly annealed from αstart _start to αend _end over NtrainN_train training steps: α(t)=αstart+tNtrain(αend−αstart) α(t)= _start+ tN_train ( _end- _start ) (14) where t denotes current training step. This allows CoCoEvolve@Train to transition gradually from teacher-guided co-training toward fully self-supervised co-evolution, as πθ _θ becomes increasingly reliable over the course of training. 3.5 CoCoEvolve@Evaluation Suite for Multidimensional Assessment In addition to the lack of a systematic and generalizable evaluation suite, existing LLM-as-Judge and MLLM-as-Judge approaches for chart-to-code assessment suffer from ill-grained judgment, typically relying on LLMs and MLLMs to generate the final score by collapsing complex visual and structural fidelity into a single 0-100 score (Tang et al., 2025; Yang et al., 2025b), a scale at which LLMs and MLLMs are known to be inconsistent and unreliable (Wang et al., 2024a; Stureborg et al., 2024). This makes them ill-suited for the accurate, multidimensional assessment that charts and code demand. To address both limitations, we introduce CoCoEvolve@Eval, a unified evaluation suite that, for the first time, systematically covers all six cross-representation tasks in the cycle. Rather than collapsing assessment into wide-range scores or delegating final scoring to LLMs and MLLMs, our evaluation suite decomposes evaluation into interpretable dimensions to obtain multidimensional means. As such, CoCoEvolve@Eval yields multidimensional measurements generalizable across benchmarks and evaluation scenarios. Rule-as-Judge. Our rule-as-jugde for chart, code, table, and constraint evaluation leverages deterministic rubric metrics, covering structural, semantic, perceptual, textual, and stylistic accuracy for charts (FchartF_chart, §F.1.1); executability, quality, structural, lexical, contextual, and semantic accuracy for code (FcodeF_code, §F.1.2); schema and value accuracy for tables (FtableF_table, §F.1.3); and semantic and lexical accuracy for constraints (FconstraintF_constraint, §F.1.4). Full metric definitions are provided in §F.1. LLM-as-Judge. To complement rule-based metrics with semantic reasoning beyond surface-level code similarity, we introduce an LLM-as-judge evaluator that assesses visualization code quality across five fine-grained dimensions: data correctness, chart type accuracy, structural fidelity, visual accuracy, and style accuracy (§F.2). Rather than collapsing each assessment into a wide-range score where LLMs are known to be unreliable (§3.5), each dimension is scored independently and weighted into a final score JcodeJ_code. MLLM-as-Judge. To directly assess visual fidelity between predicted and reference outputs, we introduce MLLM-as-judge for charts, tables, and constraints. Each representation is evaluated across five fine-grained dimensions targeting distinct aspects of prediction quality, weighted into final scores JchartJ_chart (§F.3.1), JtableJ_table (§F.3.2), and JconstraintJ_constraint (§F.3.3). Model Exe. (%) Rule-as-Judge (%) LLM-as-Judge (%) m@4 bleu str. lex. ctx. sem. m@4 type data str. visual style m@4 Baselines Qwen3-VL-2B 58.56 29.92 32.62 34.39 92.99 76.12 53.21 55.37 24.26 30.79 16.16 24.03 30.12 Qwen3-VL-4B 78.47 30.52 33.84 37.14 94.02 77.88 54.68 74.35 34.03 39.31 23.94 33.38 41.00 InternVL3.5-4B 59.72 27.91 35.99 32.02 92.29 75.28 52.70 58.10 28.33 33.61 18.89 23.75 32.54 Llama3.2-3B 22.51 29.15 10.79 21.50 84.32 61.97 41.55 43.69 30.42 23.08 13.60 19.05 25.97 DeepSeek-1.3B 47.69 26.89 27.89 26.44 91.97 72.05 49.05 45.73 29.51 25.08 16.49 16.47 26.66 DeepSeek-6.7B 68.00 28.71 29.81 30.54 92.26 74.91 51.25 59.27 34.93 30.34 21.05 24.65 34.05 Qwen3-1.7B 57.47 27.99 30.03 31.90 93.32 77.86 52.22 63.78 33.63 32.56 19.26 26.56 35.16 Qwen3-4B 77.60 31.56 26.08 33.02 91.94 71.72 50.86 76.66 35.75 34.31 23.03 28.08 39.57 Qwen3-8B 82.75 30.32 29.89 32.19 93.65 75.28 52.27 80.83 37.95 37.73 26.34 32.52 43.07 CoCoEvolve (@Test) Qwen3-VL-2B 87.04 31.54 38.36 37.78 93.22 77.37 55.65 76.85 35.56 41.67 24.44 35.00 42.70 Qwen3-VL-4B 93.52 33.09 41.21 41.91 96.27 81.18 58.73 86.30 44.26 48.70 34.81 44.81 51.78 InternVL3.5-4B 92.59 31.78 45.87 38.23 95.86 80.67 58.48 75.19 41.30 44.81 28.33 34.63 44.85 Llama3.2-3B 85.19 34.87 29.95 32.06 94.73 76.70 53.66 59.26 48.52 37.78 28.15 29.07 40.56 DeepSeek-1.3B 96.30 32.23 42.37 34.08 96.47 81.01 57.23 69.44 46.33 44.63 34.63 29.81 44.97 DeepSeek-6.7B 99.07 34.23 45.48 40.81 97.50 83.18 60.24 88.33 48.89 50.19 41.48 42.96 54.37 Qwen3-1.7B 97.22 33.32 35.34 38.55 92.65 74.09 54.79 88.52 48.67 45.07 39.44 42.52 52.84 Qwen3-4B 99.07 34.94 36.87 39.50 95.93 79.64 57.38 93.33 50.74 48.89 41.85 44.26 55.81 Qwen3-8B 100.00 35.56 44.92 41.70 97.43 83.04 60.53 93.89 52.96 53.33 46.11 49.44 59.15 CoCoEvolve (@Train) Qwen3-VL-2B 85.42 30.84 34.58 36.79 94.73 79.37 55.26 57.68 27.37 33.24 18.79 26.39 32.69 Qwen3-VL-4B 92.59 31.36 35.06 39.91 95.22 80.92 56.49 75.70 36.15 40.80 26.11 35.28 42.81 Llama3.2-3B 83.10 29.32 29.56 32.53 94.30 78.74 52.89 42.80 32.40 27.16 16.60 20.83 27.96 DeepSeek-1.3B 93.00 27.75 34.65 29.39 92.70 76.77 52.25 49.99 32.73 33.43 21.74 17.24 31.03 Qwen3-1.7B 76.68 29.02 32.28 34.93 94.98 79.38 54.12 64.83 36.01 33.54 22.56 25.20 36.43 Qwen3-4B 95.25 32.80 33.47 41.32 96.37 80.41 56.87 77.86 37.16 35.72 25.40 30.59 41.35 Qwen3-8B 98.15 33.89 36.02 42.19 97.65 82.28 58.41 83.28 39.24 39.12 28.74 34.27 44.93 CoCoEvolve (@Train + @Test) Qwen3-VL-2B 93.36 33.90 40.44 39.14 94.76 79.42 57.53 79.32 37.37 42.83 25.69 35.88 44.22 Qwen3-VL-4B 97.22 36.31 41.36 43.87 96.26 82.32 60.02 87.96 46.48 51.11 38.34 43.33 53.44 Llama3.2-3B 100.00 36.02 41.34 38.31 97.19 82.30 59.03 78.70 50.74 42.41 34.63 37.59 48.81 DeepSeek-1.3B 99.07 33.08 44.93 37.48 97.28 81.43 58.84 80.19 48.48 46.85 35.37 35.93 49.36 Qwen3-1.7B 100.00 34.32 49.47 43.75 97.72 84.52 61.96 88.85 50.74 49.81 39.63 42.22 54.25 Qwen3-4B 100.00 36.47 42.73 41.57 97.42 84.03 60.44 93.48 51.33 49.85 42.81 45.33 56.56 Qwen3-8B 100.00 39.65 50.37 43.68 98.88 88.23 64.16 94.62 54.77 55.38 47.52 50.79 60.62 Table 1: Performance Evaluation on Code. We evaluate →X (∈,X∈\V,T\) performance for MθM_θ (→V ) and MψM_ψ (→T ) using rule-as-judge and LLM-as-judge. We calculate the mean score over four rollouts for both MθM_θ and MψM_ψ, denoted as m@4. Compared to baselines, CoCoEvolve-enhanced models are optimized at train time and/or test time in student mode. Model Rule-as-Judge (%) MLLM-as-Judge (%) str. sem. sim. acc. M@4 type data text style visual M@4 Baselines Qwen3-VL-2B 38.06 55.59 54.37 36.47 46.12 36.39 20.56 27.92 18.06 16.67 23.92 Qwen3-VL-4B 51.53 75.22 74.48 54.23 63.87 55.93 33.84 44.81 30.42 27.92 38.58 InternVL3.5-4B 39.10 56.35 54.37 37.68 46.88 35.97 23.94 29.35 15.42 16.25 24.19 Llama3.2-3B 14.71 20.95 20.31 12.29 17.07 12.31 10.15 8.54 6.32 5.47 8.56 DeepSeek-1.3B 30.75 44.62 42.96 26.83 36.29 25.03 18.32 17.97 9.47 10.46 16.25 DeepSeek-6.7B 44.53 63.95 62.29 42.75 53.38 43.06 31.56 32.18 19.04 20.58 29.28 Qwen3-1.7B 36.69 54.28 53.14 35.22 44.83 37.77 23.04 26.19 16.88 17.09 24.19 Qwen3-4B 51.36 73.26 72.27 50.28 61.79 54.70 34.66 35.96 23.61 25.50 34.89 Qwen3-8B 54.60 78.65 77.66 55.72 66.66 61.32 38.38 43.68 27.84 29.11 40.07 CoCoEvolve (@Test) Qwen3-VL-2B 58.76 83.36 81.80 58.58 70.63 66.85 37.04 52.96 37.04 32.59 45.30 Qwen3-VL-4B 63.11 90.27 89.64 68.67 77.92 85.56 56.11 71.48 54.44 47.22 62.96 InternVL3.5-4B 62.84 88.01 85.51 61.89 74.56 68.15 47.59 58.70 33.52 32.59 48.11 Llama3.2-3B 58.79 80.66 78.98 56.39 68.71 58.52 45.74 46.48 34.63 28.15 42.70 DeepSeek-1.3B 67.22 91.95 89.94 63.97 78.27 76.48 55.93 57.78 34.27 34.44 51.78 DeepSeek-6.7B 70.26 95.36 93.71 73.60 83.23 88.52 68.15 74.63 49.81 46.48 65.52 Qwen3-1.7B 65.60 90.47 92.31 69.89 79.57 87.96 64.44 70.74 48.89 45.93 63.59 Qwen3-4B 68.94 95.47 94.89 74.48 83.45 95.74 75.74 74.44 55.74 53.52 71.04 Qwen3-8B 71.22 96.80 96.51 77.38 85.48 97.04 77.41 85.37 58.52 55.93 74.85 CoCoEvolve (@Train) Qwen3-VL-2B 46.80 60.89 61.39 42.83 52.98 40.03 26.78 29.18 21.32 20.16 27.49 Qwen3-VL-4B 59.05 82.02 81.24 60.32 70.66 59.40 39.81 45.63 33.33 31.39 41.91 Llama3.2-3B 56.04 78.43 74.12 49.57 64.54 38.11 27.86 31.67 13.01 17.19 25.57 DeepSeek-1.3B 63.12 88.03 84.29 58.92 73.59 50.68 32.13 43.00 13.77 22.80 32.48 Qwen3-1.7B 49.85 72.59 70.79 48.05 60.32 49.55 33.54 37.25 21.34 23.28 32.99 Qwen3-4B 60.88 84.82 83.45 60.36 72.38 64.66 38.94 46.86 25.99 30.89 41.47 Qwen3-8B 61.83 86.21 85.34 62.89 74.07 68.93 42.37 48.97 30.96 32.78 44.80 CoCoEvolve (@Train + @Test) Qwen3-VL-2B 61.32 89.36 88.38 63.37 75.61 72.37 52.89 60.38 45.83 40.76 54.45 Qwen3-VL-4B 67.52 93.86 93.07 70.39 81.21 88.15 61.67 71.30 55.37 49.44 65.19 Llama3.2-3B 69.86 95.55 91.90 69.07 81.60 74.26 59.81 60.00 32.78 35.19 52.41 DeepSeek-1.3B 69.93 94.84 92.59 71.61 82.24 82.22 61.30 73.71 35.26 41.67 58.83 Qwen3-1.7B 70.18 96.26 95.35 73.41 83.80 89.63 72.96 77.59 55.74 50.37 69.26 Qwen3-4B 71.10 96.31 95.48 75.50 84.60 98.33 76.81 78.15 56.85 54.07 72.84 Qwen3-8B 73.75 98.03 97.21 78.56 86.89 98.98 78.74 88.62 59.26 56.69 76.46 Table 2: Performance Evaluation on Chart. We evaluate →C performance for MθM_θ (→V ) and MψM_ψ (→T ) using rule-as-judge and MLLM-as-judge. Some evaluation dimensions are shown as abbreviations for clarity, where str., sem., sim., and acc., represent visual structure, visual semantics, visual similarity, and visual accuracy, respectively. Compared to baselines, CoCoEvolve-enhanced models are optimized at train time and/or test time in student mode. 4 Experiments 4.1 Setup Data. We randomly sample non-overlapping training and test subsets from ChartCoder (Zhao et al., 2025) through outcome-grounded filtering (§C). For main evaluation, we measure model performance on six cyclic tasks of the chart-table-code learning cycle (§3.1), including ⇔V , ⇔V , and ⇔C . To evaluate model generalizability and robustness, we extend our evaluation to (1) out-of-domain data: multi-domain test sets adapted from ChartMimic (Yang et al., 2025b) (e.g., physics, mathematics, economics, biology, etc.) and ChartNet (Kondic et al., 2026) (e.g., health, finance, etc.); and (2) out-of-domain tasks: multi-level complexity tasks on Chart2Code (Tang et al., 2025) and ChartMimic (Yang et al., 2025b) (§C.3). Model. We employ three MLLMs and six LLMs as MθM_θ and MψM_ψ, including Qwen3-VL (2B & 4B) and InternVL3.5 (4B), Qwen3 (1.7B, 4B, 8B), DeepSeek-Coder (1.3B & 6.7B), and Llama-3.2 (3B) (Yang et al., 2025a; Wang et al., 2025; Guo et al., 2024; Grattafiori et al., 2024). For evaluation, we leverage GPT-5-mini and Gemini-3-Pro as LLM and MLLM judges (§3.5 & Fig. 12). Implementation Details. CoCoEvolve trains models for Nepoch=2N_epoch=2 epochs across Ntrain=200N_train=200 steps, with an initial learning rate lr=1×10−6lr=1× 10^-6 and weighted decay 1×10−21× 10^-2 via AdamW. We configure Kθ=Kψ=4K_θ=K_ψ=4, with global batch size B=8B=8. Our configuration details are in §E. 4.2 Cross-Representation Learning CoCoEvolve Improves Cross-Representation Understanding Across ⇔ V Representation Cycle. As shown in Tab. 1, CoCoEvolve consistently improves code quality across MθM_θ and MψM_ψ, achieving up to 100.00% sandbox execution succuss with CoCoEvolve@Train+@test, together with gains of up to Δ=↑17.48% = 17.48\% and Δ=26.57% =26.57\% in rule-as-judge and LLM-as-judge evaluations, respectively. Chart evaluation further showcases robust improvements, yielding gains of Δ≥6.79% ≥ 6.79\% and Δ≥3.33% ≥ 3.33\% across rule-as-judge and MLLM-as-judge metrics, respectively. Moreover, table evaluation (Fig. 4) also reveals stable gains through CoCoEvolve, showcasing enhanced performance with up to Δ=15.64% =15.64\% and Δ=24.72% =24.72\% in rule-as-judge and MLLM-as-judge, respectively. Collectively, these evaluations demonstrate that CoCoEvolve effectively strengthens multifaceted cross-representation understanding capabilities of various models across chart, table, and code. 4.3 Generalizability & Robustness Figure 3: Ablation Study on Teacher Module. Capable of seamlessly generalizing to supervised learning, we study the effects of ℳM (§3.4) in guiding cross-representation understanding. Teacher Module with High-Quality Supervision Facilitates Cross-Representation Learning. Equipped with ℳM, CoCoEvolve is naturally generalizable to supervised learning. Using outcome-verified supervision to guide optimization (§C), we study the effect of ℳM during train and test time. As shown in Fig. 3, enabling ℳM only at test time consistently improves performance across all six cross-representation tasks, yielding gains of Δ≥2.54% ≥ 2.54\% across representations. This finding suggests that ℳM with high-quality supervision can effectively promote transferable cross-representation understanding. Nevertheless, performance becomes less stable when ℳM is enabled only during training. In contrast, enabling ℳM at both training and test time yields more balanced overall performance among all cross-representation tasks, indicating that supervision learned during training and teacher-assisted inference complement each other in improving cross-representation reasoning. CoCoEvolve Improves Generalizability to Out-of-Domain Tasks. Leveraging Chart2Code and Chart2Mimic with varying tasks and complexity levels (§4.1), Fig. 9 demonstrates that CoCoEvolve generalizes effectively to out-of-domain settings, extending beyond direct chart→ reproduction to more challenging scenarios involving multi-input chart reproduction and modification. On ChartMimic, CoCoEvolve improves the performance of both MθM_θ and MψM_ψ by up to ↑37.97% 37.97\% on chart→ reproduction, and up to ↑34.65% 34.65\% on chart+data→ reproduction. Likewise, on Chart2Code, CoCoEvolve yields substantial gains across all complexity levels and out-of-domain tasks, achieving improvements of up to ↑37.91% 37.91\% on chart→ reproduction, ↑46.88% 46.88\% on chart+figure→ modification, ↑27.85% 27.85\% on chart+table→ modification, and ↑45.44% 45.44\% on chart+instruction→ modification. Collectively, these results reveal the robust generalizability of CoCoEvolve to out-of-domain tasks with varying complexity and distribution shifts. Figure 4: Performance Evaluation on Table. We evaluate table performance for MθM_θ (→V and →C ) using rule-as-judge and MLLM-as-judge. The data accuracy, coverage completeness, and row alignment evaluation dimensions are represented respectively as acc., coverage, and row for clarity. Compared to baselines, CoCoEvolve-enhanced models are optimized at train time and/or test time in student mode. CoCoEvolve Improves Generalizability to Multi-Domain Cross-Representation Understanding. Finetuned on 10,29810,298 instances adapted exclusively from ChartCoder (§C), CoCoEvolve exhibits strong generalizability to multi-domain cross-representation understanding. As shown in Fig. 9, in addition to achieving Δ≥2.41% ≥ 2.41\% on the non-overlapping test set of ChartCoder (Tab. 3), CoCoEvolve further transfers effectively to data across various domains, yielding improvements of up to ↑35.68% 35.68\% on ChartNet and ↑37.97% 37.97\% on ChartMimic. Together, these results demonstrate the robust cross-domain generalization of CoCoEvolve across diverse tasks and representations. Figure 5: Generalizability to Different RL Algorithms. Rule- and Judge- indicate if they are rule-based or LLM- / MLLM- based judges. CoCoEvolve Integrates Seamlessly with Different RL Algorithms. Through consistency-driven optimization (§3), we integrate CoCoEvolve into GRPO, DAPO, and GSPO and evaluate its effectiveness across MθM_θ=Qwen3-VL-4B and MψM_ψ=Qwen3-4B (§3.2). As shown in Fig. 5, CoCoEvolve consistently improves the cross-understanding performance of both MθM_θ and MψM_ψ across all six tasks in the representation cycle, irrespective of the underlying RL algorithm (Δ up to ↑18.71% 18.71\% in execution, ↑6.96% 6.96\% in code, ↑12.15% 12.15\% in chart, ↑3.36% 3.36\% in table). 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First, our current framework instantiates MθM_θ and MψM_ψ with small-size model architectures, exploring broader families of MLLMs and LLMs with larger sizes (e.g., 480B) may reveal how architectural choices interact with the co-evolution dynamic and further improve performance. Second, CoCoEvolve currently operates on static chart images, while its applicability to dynamic or animated visualizations, where temporal relationships across frames introduce additional representational complexity beyond the chart-table-code cycle (§3.1), is underexplored. Extending CoCoEvolve to animated cross-representation understanding, where visual, tabular, and code representations must jointly account for temporal semantics, remains an exciting direction for future work. Appendix B Preliminaries B.1 Can Assumed One-to-One Annotations Reliably Supervise Model Learning? Q1: Can Assumed One-to-One Annotations Reliably Supervise Model Learning? Existing cross-representation benchmarks assume one-to-one chart-table-code mappings despite their inherently one-to-many nature. Can an MLLM trained on such ill-defined unconstrained one-to-one annotations achieve optimized performance? To answer Q1, we finetune Qwen3-VL-4B (MθM_θ) and Qwen3-4B (MψM_ψ) via SFT, finetuned for 1 epoch on 30,000 instances randomly sampled from ChartNet (Kondic et al., 2026), a benchmark that assumes one-to-one chart-table-code correspondences. We then evaluate both the base models and the SFT-finetuned MθM_θ and MψM_ψ on the same held-out test set of 542 non-overlapping instances randomly sampled from the same benchmark (Tab. 3). As shown in Fig. 6, we evaluate MθM_θ and MψM_ψ under three settings: non-finetuned baseline, SFT, and non-finetuned CoCoEvolve@Test, using the same non-overlapping test set adapted from ChartNet. Although the SFT-trained MθM_θ, finetuned on additional training instances, achieves slightly improved performance on chart-to-code generation (Δ=↑1.14% = 1.14\% in rule-as-judge code evaluation, Δ=↑4.57% = 4.57\% in LLM-as-judge code evaluation), it exhibits noticeably degraded performance on code, chart, and table evaluation across sandbox execution (Δ=↓11.31% = 11.31\%), rule-as-judge (up to Δ=↓7.85% = 7.85\%), and MLLM-as-judge (up tp Δ=↓8.48% = 8.48\%). Moreover, not only does MθM_θ perform worse on chart and table evaluation, but MψM_ψ also shows significant degradation across chart, code, and table evaluation (up to Δ=↓21.25% = 21.25\%). In addition, both MθM_θ and MψM_ψ exhibit significantly reduced code execution success rates (up to Δ=↓14.93% = 14.93\%). These results reveal that the assumed one-to-one annotations, without properly defined constraints, are inherently one-to-many and thus ill-defined and unreliable for guiding and supervising model learning (§1). This motivates the critical need for a principled constraint definition to properly ground one-to-many mappings to precise one-to-one correspondences (§3.1). B.2 Can Fixed Supervision Reliably Guides Cross-Representation Learning? Q2: Can Fixed Supervision Reliably Guides Cross-Representation Learning? Even with principled constraints (§3.1), can an MLLM trained on fixed chart-to-table and chart-to-code pairs not only achieve robust performance on unseen instances of trained tasks (chart-to-table and chart-to-code), but also reliably generalize to held-out tasks, directions, and representation combinations? To answer Q2, we further finetune Qwen3-VL-4B and Qwen3-4B via SFT (1 epoch) on exactly the same number of fixed yet constrained (§3.1) chart-to-table and chart-to-code pairs as in our main experiments (§C & Tab. 3). Note that while our main experiments use only chart-to-code instances adapted from the randomly sampled training subset of the original benchmark, this preliminary study additionally includes fixed chart-to-table annotations. Since ground-truth tables are unavailable, we use Gemini-3-Pro to generate the reference table and constraint through outcome-grounded filtering (§C). These MLLM-generated tables are used for both training and evaluation in this study (Tab. 3). Next, we evaluate MθM_θ and MψM_ψ under three settings: non-finetuned baseline, SFT, and non-finetuned CoCoEvolve@Test, using the same non-overlapping test set across six cross-representation tasks (§3.1 & §4.1), covering trained tasks (⇔V , ⇔V ), reversed directions (⇔T , ⇔C ), and unseen representation combinations (⇔T ). Results in Fig. 7 demonstrate that fixed supervision signals not only fail to reliably optimize MθM_θ and MψM_ψ on their trained tasks (with Δ up to ↓25.19% 25.19\%), but are also unable to generalize to reversed directions (with Δ up to ↓25.10% 25.10\%) and unseen representation combinations (with Δ up to ↓31.82% 31.82\%), motivating the need for a principled, task-agnostic, and direction-agnostic supervision paradigm as proposed in CoCoEvolve (§3). B.3 How Do Models Fail in Cross-Representation Understanding? Motivated by our findings on the substantial unreliability of unconstrained cross-representation understanding (§B.1) and the limitations of fixed supervision signals (§B.2), we conduct a third preliminary study to qualitatively analyze how models fail during cross-representation understanding. Fig. 8 shows a representative failure example from our case studies. Given a chart image, we analyze the model outputs across multiple representations, including structured tables, visualization code, and rendered charts. We observe two key failure patterns: 1 Model failures are highly correlated across representations. When the model fails to understand a chart, similar failures consistently appear across its generated representations. For example, incorrect numerical values, missing titles and labels, and incomplete information extraction observed in the table are also reflected in the generated code and rendered visualization. Different representations tend to exhibit similar understanding errors despite expressing information in different forms, suggesting that model failures originate from a shared deficiency in underlying chart understanding rather than isolated representation-specific errors. When situated in the representation cycle (§3.1), such failures propagate rapidly across different representations, resulting in accumulated errors and increasingly amplified inaccuracies. 2 Representations remain highly inconsistent despite describing the same semantics. Although different representations are expected to encode the same chart semantics, the generated outputs frequently disagree. In Fig. 8, the extracted table only contains information from the left subplot, while the generated visualization code attempts to reconstruct both subplots with substantial inaccuracies. Similar inconsistencies appear in rendered outputs through mismatched metadata, incorrect scales, distorted layouts, and inconsistent visual encodings. These observations suggest that existing models struggle to maintain semantic agreement across representations. Collectively, our analysis reveals that cross-representation failures are characterized not only by low fidelity within individual representations, but also by poor agreement among representations. This indicates that optimizing representations independently or relying on fixed supervision signals are insufficient for robust cross-representation understanding. These findings motivate our consistency-driven co-evolution framework (§3). Instead of leveraging unconstrained or fixed supervision signals (§B.1-B.2), CoCoEvolve explicitly encourage agreement across representations and reward mutually consistent generations. By enforcing cross-representation consistency, models co-evolve symbiotically, improving understanding fidelity within each representation and enhancing alignment across representations, thereby optimizing overall cross-representation understanding. Source ⇔ V ⇔ V ⇔ T → V → C → V → T → T → C Preliminary Study - Q1 ( train: , 30,000 ∣ test: 542 ) ChartNet (Kondic et al., 2026) ✓ (1) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Data adapted sandbox adapted adapted adapted adapted Ntrain N_train 30,00030,000 - - - 30,00030,000 - Ntest N_test 542542 - 542542 542542 542542 542542 Preliminary Study - Q2 ( train: , 10,298 ∣ test: 542 ) ChartCoder (Zhao et al., 2025) ✓ (1) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Data adapted sandbox generated generated generated generated Ntrain N_train 10,29810,298 - - - - - Ntest N_test 3,4113,411 - 10821082 10821082 10821082 10821082 Train ( train: , 10,298 ) ChartCoder (Zhao et al., 2025) ✓ (1) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Data adapted sandbox - - - - Ntrain N_train 10,29810,298 - - - - - Test ( test: , 3,411 ) ChartCoder (Zhao et al., 2025) ✓ (1) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Data adapted sandbox generated generated generated generated Ntest N_test 542542 - 542542 542542 542542 542542 ChartMimic (Yang et al., 2025b) ✓ (2) ✓ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ Data adapted sandbox - - - - Ntest N_test 10841084 - - - - - Chart2Code (Tang et al., 2025) ✓ (4) ✓ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ Data adapted sandbox - - - - Ntest N_test 12431243 - - - - - ChartNet (Kondic et al., 2026) ✓ (1) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Data adapted sandbox adapted adapted adapted adapted Ntest N_test 542542 - 542542 542542 542542 542542 Table 3: Data Statistics. We summarize the data statistics of our datasets used in preliminary studies, training, and evaluation. All adapted data are randomly sampled from the original benchmarks and adapted to our cross-representation tasks, sandbox denotes sandbox execution, and generated represents MLLM-generated samples where we use Gemini-3.1-Pro to generate the ground-truth table and constraint for each chart instance in the training subset randomly sampled from the original benchmark. ✓(n) denotes the number of fine-grained chart-to-code generation tasks: (a) ChartCoder: (1) chart→ (reproduction); (b) ChartMimic: (1) chart→ (reproduction), (2) chart+data→ (reproduction); (c) Chart2Code: (1) chart→ (reproduction), (2) chart+ instruction→ (modification), (3) chart+table→ (modification), (4) chart+figure→ (modification); (d) ChartNet: (1) chart→ (reproduction). Figure 6: Significance of Constraints in Cross-Representation Understanding. Comparing MθM_θ and MψM_ψ variants among baseline, non-finetuned (NF) CoCoEvolve@Test (§3.3), and SFT (§B.1), SFT-trained MθM_θ and MψM_ψ exhibit notably degraded performance, highlighting the significance of constrained one-to-one mapping in cross-representation understanding. Figure 7: Limitations of Fixed Supervision Signals in Cross-Representation Understanding. Comparing MθM_θ and MψM_ψ variants among baseline, non-finetuned (NF) CoCoEvolve@Test (§3.3), and SFT (§B.1), SFT-trained (FT) MθM_θ and MψM_ψ show noticeably degraded performance, revealing the critical limitations of fixed annotations in supervising cross-representation learning. Figure 8: Cross-Representation Understanding Failures. A case study from our preliminary analysis illustrating how model errors accumulate and propagate across representations, resulting in inaccurate data extraction, incomplete information transfer, and significant cross-representation inconsistencies. Figure 9: Out-of-Domain Generalization. We extend our evaluation to out-of-domain datasets and tasks (§4.1), leveraging Qwen3-VL-4B and Qwen3-4B as MθM_θ and MψM_ψ, respectively. Figure 10: Failure Analysis. We visualize the failure distribution of Qwen3-4B-VL in cross-representation understanding, where baseline is the non-finetuned base model, ours (@train) is Qwen3-4B-VL finetuned through CoCoEvolve@Train, and ours (@train & @test) is ours (@train) further optimized by CoCoEvolve@Test. Appendix C Dataset Construction We construct our training and evaluation datasets by adapting existing chart benchmarks to our cross-representation learning framework (§3). All adapted instances are reformatted to our representation cycle instructions (Figs. 14-16) and verified through sandbox execution. Tab. 3 summarizes the full data statistics across our training and evaluation datasets. C.1 Sandbox Environment To verify the executability of visualization code across dataset construction, training, and evaluation, we create our sandbox execution environment via Docker (Docker, 2013) pre-installed with a set of commonly used data visualization and scientific computing packages, including matplotlib, seaborn, plotly, pandas, numpy, scipy, scikit-learn, Pillow, squarify, etc. Each code execution is run in an isolated container with a fixed timeout of ltimeoutl_timeout seconds, ensuring reproducibility and safety across all dataset construction, training, and evaluation stages. As such, our sandbox reliably powers our deterministic code executor h (Eq. 1), where h(c^)h( c) returns the rendered chart image on success and fails otherwise. C.2 Training Dataset We construct our training dataset exclusively from ChartCoder (Zhao et al., 2025) through three filtering stages followed by a final sampling step: Stage 1 on Filtering: Sandbox Executability. We filter instances whose reference code renders successfully via our deterministic executor h (§3.1), ensuring all training instances are verifiably executable in our sandbox environment. Stage 2 on Filtering: Token Length. We filter instances satisfying len(input)≤linput len(input)≤ l_input and len(c)≤lcode len(c)≤ l_code, where linputl_input and lcodel_code are maximum token length thresholds for the chart input and reference code, respectively. Stage 3 on Filtering: Outcome-Grounded Verification. For each remaining instance, we generate candidate reference tables tgt_gt and constraints sgts_gt using GPT-5-mini (OpenAI, 2025), and retain only instances where the generated tgt_gt and sgts_gt verifiably improve downstream MψM_ψ (powered by Qwen3-4B) code generation performance, ensuring their quality as reliable evaluation references. We further filter instances satisfying len(tgt)≤ltable len(t_gt)≤ l_table and len(sgt)≤lconstraint len(s_gt)≤ l_constraint, where ltablel_table and lconstraintl_constraint are maximum token length thresholds for the reference table and constraint, respectively. Stage 4 on Sampling. From the filtered dataset, we randomly downsample 10,29810,298 instances as our final training set. From the remaining instances, we further randomly sample 542542 non-overlapping instances as the in-domain evaluation set for the ChartCoder benchmark (Zhao et al., 2025) adapted to our cross-representation understanding tasks. C.3 Evaluation Datasets We construct evaluation datasets from four benchmarks through the same filtering pipeline as the training dataset, adapting each to cross-representation learning instructions. All evaluation instances are non-overlapping with the training set. Stages 1-3 on Filtering. All evaluation instances undergo the same three filtering stages as the training dataset (§C.2): (1) sandbox executability verification via h; (2) token length filtering with thresholds linputl_input, lcodel_code; and (3) reference table tgt_gt and constraint sgts_gt generation and outcome-grounded verification, followed by token length filtering with thresholds ltablel_table, lconstraintl_constraint. Stage 4 on Sampling. From the filtered instances, we construct the following evaluation sets, all randomly sampled and adapted to our cross-representation learning instructions: 1 ChartCoder (Zhao et al., 2025) (542542 instances): in-domain evaluation set adapted to our cross-representation understanding tasks, non-overlapping with the training set. 2 ChartNet (Kondic et al., 2026) (542542 instances): out-of-domain evaluation set adapted to our cross-representation understanding tasks, covering different domains (e.g., health, finance, etc.) and visualization packages (e.g., matplotlib, plotly, etc.) 3 ChartMimic (Yang et al., 2025b) (10841084 instances): evaluation set adapted to our cross-representation understanding tasks, comprising 542542 in-domain cross-representation understanding tasks and 542542 out-of-domain chart modification instances covering diverse scientific domains, such as physics, mathematics, economics, biology, etc. 4 Chart2Code (Tang et al., 2025) (1,2431,243 instances): evaluation set adapted to four tasks covering multi-level chart complexity, including cross-representation understanding (in-domain), text-based chart modification (out-of-domain), table-based chart modification (out-of-domain), and figure-based chart modification (out-of-domain). All token length thresholds linputl_input, lcodel_code, ltablel_table, and lconstraintl_constraint, together with sampling configurations, are summarized in §E.1 and Tab. 6. Appendix D CoCoEvolve@Train: Consistency-Driven Co-Evolution In the co-evolution objective (Eq. 8), each surrogate is a token-level clipped-ratio loss with KL penalty: ℒθ(i) _θ^(i) =1|oθ(i)|∑τmin(ρθ,τ(i)Aθ(i),clip(ρθ,τ(i),1−ϵ,1+ϵ)Aθ(i))−βKL[πθ∥πθref] = 1|o_θ^(i)| _τ \! ( _θ,τ^(i)A_θ^(i),\;clip( _θ,τ^(i),1-ε,1+ε)A_θ^(i) )-β\,D_KL\! [ _θ\,\|\, _θ^ref ] (15) ℒψ(i,k) _ψ^(i,k) =1|oψ(i,k)|∑τmin(ρψ,τ(i,k)Aψ(i,k),clip(ρψ,τ(i,k),1−ϵ,1+ϵ)Aψ(i,k))−βKL[πψ∥πψref] = 1|o_ψ^(i,k)| _τ \! ( _ψ,τ^(i,k)A_ψ^(i,k),\;clip( _ψ,τ^(i,k),1-ε,1+ε)A_ψ^(i,k) )-β\,D_KL\! [ _ψ\,\|\, _ψ^ref ] (16) The coupling is carried by the advantages. Let rθ(oθ(i),oψ(i,k);v)r_θ(o_θ^(i),o_ψ^(i,k);v) and rψ(oθ(i),oψ(i,k);v)r_ψ(o_θ^(i),o_ψ^(i,k);v) denote the paired reward functionals defined in Eq.7, where Rθ(i,k)=rθ(oθ(i),oψ(i,k);v)R_θ^(i,k)=r_θ(o_θ^(i),o_ψ^(i,k);v) and Rψ(i,k)=rψ(oθ(i),oψ(i,k);v)R_ψ^(i,k)=r_ψ(o_θ^(i),o_ψ^(i,k);v) denote the corresponding scalar rewards. The πθ _θ advantage marginalizes over πψ _ψ noise by averaging across its KψK_ψ children of each πθ _θ rollout: r¯θ(i) r_θ^(i) =1Kψ∑k=1Kψrθ(oθ(i),oψ(i,k);v) = 1K_ψ _k=1^K_ψr_θ\! (o_θ^(i),o_ψ^(i,k);v ) (17) Aθ(i) A_θ^(i) =r¯θ(i)−μθ(v)σθ(v)+δ = r_θ^(i)- _θ(v) _θ(v)+δ (18) so that credit assignment to πθ _θ reflects expected cross-model quality rather than a single πψ _ψ draw. The πψ _ψ advantage is computed within the KψK_ψ-sibling group conditioned on the same πθ _θ parent: Aψ(i,k)=rψ(oθ(i),oψ(i,k);v)−μψ(i)σψ(i)+δ A_ψ^(i,k)= r_ψ\! (o_θ^(i),o_ψ^(i,k);v )- _ψ^(i) _ψ^(i)+δ (19) where (μθ(v),σθ(v))( _θ(v), _θ(v)) are the mean and standard deviation of r¯θ(i)i=1Kθ\ r_θ^(i)\_i=1^K_θ, (μψ(i),σψ(i))( _ψ^(i), _ψ^(i)) those of rψ(oθ(i),oψ(i,k);v)k=1Kψ\r_ψ(o_θ^(i),o_ψ^(i,k);v)\_k=1^K_ψ, ρθ,τ(i)=πθ(oθ,τ(i)∣v,oθ,<τ(i))/πθ,old(⋅) _θ,τ^(i)= _θ(o_θ,τ^(i) v,o_θ,<τ^(i))/ _θ,old(·) and ρψ,τ(i,k)=πψ(oψ,τ(i,k)∣s(i),t(i),oψ,<τ(i,k))/πψ,old(⋅) _ψ,τ^(i,k)= _ψ(o_ψ,τ^(i,k) s^(i),t^(i),o_ψ,<τ^(i,k))/ _ψ,old(·) are per-token importance ratios, and δ is a numerical stabilizer. Appendix E Implementation Details In Tabs. 4-6, we summarize the core symbols, notations, and hyperparameter settings used in this paper. Below, we further explain the key design choices to facilitate reproducibility and adaptation to customized use cases. E.1 Experiment Configuration Three-Tier Notation. Our method involves two models interacting through a shared representation cycle, which requires careful notational separation between their functional roles, model identities, and training policies (Tab. 4): 1 fθf_θ and gψg_ψ denote task mappings: the core representational objectives each model is designed to perform. Note that fθf_θ formally describes the primary cross-representation objective without enumerating all outputs of MθM_θ, whose full rollout oθ(i)=(s^(i),t^(i),c^θ(i))o_θ^(i)=( s^(i), t^(i), c_θ^(i)) additionally includes a constraint and a reference code for co-evolution. 2 MθM_θ and MψM_ψ denote model identities instantiating these mappings: MθM_θ is a multimodal model and MψM_ψ is a language model. They can be instantiated by either the same or different base models, depending on experimental settings (§4). 3 πθ _θ and πψ _ψ denote the training policies parameterizing MθM_θ and MψM_ψ during RL: used specifically in the context of rollout sampling, importance ratio computation, advantage estimation, and policy updates. This three-tier design allows us to cleanly distinguish what each model does (fθ,gψf_θ,g_ψ), what it is (Mθ,MψM_θ,M_ψ), and how it is optimized (πθ,πψ _θ, _ψ). Figure 11: Ablation Study on Reward Weighting. Asymmetric Reward Weighting. All reward weighting coefficients λ∗(π) _*^(π) and sub-weights ω∗(π) _*^(π) are defined per-model, and their values in our main experiments are intentionally asymmetric between MθM_θ and MψM_ψ (Tab. 6). This asymmetry reflects the fundamentally different roles the two models play in the representation cycle. Generating code, table, and constraint from a given chart, the primary challenges of MθM_θ lie in perceptual grounding and semantic understanding. We therefore assign MθM_θ a higher individual grounding weight λθ=0.7 _θ=0.7 while keeping its cross-model consistency weights lower (λc(θ)=0.05 _c^(θ)=0.05, λv(θ)=0.05 _v^(θ)=0.05), ensuring that MθM_θ’s training signal is dominated by how well its understanding matches the original chart v, rather than how well it agrees with MψM_ψ. By contrast, MψM_ψ performs single-modal understanding, with its primary challenge being the faithful translation of constrained table data into the chart it originally corresponds to. As such, cross-model consistency is the primary grounding signal ofMψM_ψ. We therefore assign MψM_ψ higher cross-model consistency weights (λc(ψ)=0.2 _c^(ψ)=0.2, λv(ψ)=0.2 _v^(ψ)=0.2) to reflect this. The same asymmetry applies to the code consistency sub-weights ωe(π) _e^(π) and ωs(π) _s^(π): MθM_θ is assigned higher execution weight (ωe(θ)=0.9 _e^(θ)=0.9) since binary execution success is a stronger and more direct signal for its cross-representation learning objectives, while MψM_ψ receives a more balanced split (ωe(ψ)=0.7 _e^(ψ)=0.7, ωs(ψ)=0.3 _s^(ψ)=0.3) that additionally rewards semantic code similarity. Importantly, these asymmetric weights also serve as an anti-collusion mechanism to avoid reward hacking and training crash: by assigning MθM_θ stronger individual grounding rewards relative to cross-model consistency rewards, we prevent the degenerate solution where both models collude to produce mutually consistent but semantically incorrect outputs (Fig. 11). Figure 12: Interrater Agreement. We calculate interrater agreement between two LLM- and MLLM- judges. Results suggest close alignment between two judges, revealing the effectiveness of CoCoEvolve@Eval for cross-representation evaluation. Weighting Coefficient Families. We use three distinct families of weighting coefficients for different stages of CoCoEvolve, each serving a specialized purpose: 1 ω∗(π) _*^(π) denotes sub-weights within a reward component, balancing the contribution of each constituent metric. 2 λ∗(π) _*^(π) denotes per-model weights combining heterogeneous reward components into the final reward RπR_π during training, with asymmetric configurations across MθM_θ and MψM_ψ reflecting their distinct roles in tackling the representation cycle (§3.2). 3 γ∗ _* denotes weights combining individual evaluation metrics into final composite scores during evaluation, enabling comprehensive multidimensional assessment across all six cross-representation tasks (§3.5). The three families are intentionally distinguished by symbol to make their scope, i.e., intra-component, inter-component training, and evaluation, immediately clear at each point of use. Their detailed configurations are summarized in Tab. 6. E.2 Computation Overhead We summarize the computation overhead of CoCoEvolve across main training configurations and evaluation in Tab. 5, covering GPU resources, API cost, and wall-clock time. Training. All training configurations run on H100 (96GB) GPUs with no API cost, as CoCoEvolve relies exclusively on consistency-driven rewards computed via deterministic sandbox execution and lightweight embedding models during training. Compared to the Baseline, CoCoEvolve@Train (ℳM disabled) reduces wall-clock time, owing to the more efficient co-evolution objective as compared to sequential cross-representation learning. Enabling ℳM further reduces training time to 71h (no annealing) and 72h (with annealing), as teacher-guided grounding accelerates early-stage policy convergence and reduces the number of low-quality rollouts that would otherwise contribute noisy reward signals. Evaluation. All evaluation configurations similarly run on H100 (96GB) GPUs. The API cost decreases substantially across methods: baseline evaluation incurs $0.8637 per sample due to sequential generation and rollouts, while CoCoEvolve reduces the cost through test-time consistency-driven co-optimization (§3.3) by selecting the best candidates via annotation-free consistency signals. Wall-clock time follows the same trend, demonstrating that CoCoEvolve serves as an effective annotation-free optimization approach with reduced API cost and wall-clock time at test time. Appendix F CoCoEvolve@Eval: Evaluation Suite for Multidimensional Assessment Given the limitations of existing LLM-as-Judge approaches (§3.5), we propose CoCoEvolve@Eval, a systematic evaluation suite consisting of three complementary evaluation approaches across 27 metrics, covering all six cross-representation tasks in the representation cycle (§3.1): rule-based judge (§F.1), LLM-as-Judge (§F.2), and MLLM-as-Judge (§F.3). F.1 Rule-as-Judge Evaluation F.1.1 Rule-as-Judge Chart Evaluation To achieve comprehensive chart evaluation, our rule-as-judge chart evaluation assesses four complementary dimensions: structural accuracy FssimF_ssim (Eq. 20), semantic accuracy FclipF_clip (Eq. 21), perceptual accuracy FdinoF_dino (Eq. 22), and textual accuracy FocrF_ocr (Eq. 23). Concretely, given a model-predicted chart image v v and a reference chart image v, each metric targets a distinct dimension of chart quality: Structural Accuracy. FssimF_ssim (Eq. 20) measures pixel-level structural similarity between v v and v via the structural similarity index (Wang et al., 2004): Fssim(v^,v)=SSIM(v^,v)∈[0,1]F_ssim( v,v)= SSIM( v,v)∈[0,1] (20) where FssimF_ssim captures local luminance, contrast, and structural patterns that reflect the layout and compositional fidelity of predicted charts. Semantic Accuracy. FclipF_clip (Eq. 21) measures semantic visual similarity between v v and v via normalized CLIP (Radford et al., 2021) embeddings: Fclip(v^,v)=cos(eclip(v^),eclip(v))+12∈[0,1]F_clip( v,v)= (e_clip( v),\,e_clip(v))+12∈[0,1] (21) where eclip(⋅)e_clip(·) denotes the visual embedding functions of CLIP (Radford et al., 2021), and thus FclipF_clip captures high-level semantic alignment between the predicted and reference charts. Perceptual Accuracy. FdinoF_dino (Eq. 22) measures fine-grained perceptual similarity between v v and v via normalized DINOv2 (Oquab et al., 2024) embeddings: Fdino(v^,v)=cos(edino(v^),edino(v))+12∈[0,1]F_dino( v,v)= (e_dino( v),\,e_dino(v))+12∈[0,1] (22) where edino(⋅)e_dino(·) denotes the visual embedding functions of DINOv2 (Oquab et al., 2024), and thus FdinoF_dino captures spatial and feature-level visual fidelity beyond semantic-level alignment. Textual Accuracy. FocrF_ocr (Eq. 23) measures text-level fidelity between v v and v by calculating token-level F1F_1 over OCR-extracted text via EasyOCR (JaidedAI, 2020): Focr(v^,v)=F1(OCR(v^),OCR(v))∈[0,1]F_ocr( v,v)=F_1( OCR( v),\, OCR(v))∈[0,1] (23) where FocrF_ocr captures the textual accuracy of visual elements, such as axis labels, legends, titles, data annotations, etc. Final Score. Based on these four complementary dimensions, the final rule-as-judge chart evaluation score FchartF_chart is the weighted combination of four dimensions: Fchart(v^,v)=∑mγm⋅Fm(v^,v)F_chart( v,v)= _m _m· F_m( v,v) (24) where m∈clip,ssim,ocr,dinom∈\clip,ssim,ocr,dino\, with γm∈γclip,γssim,γocr,γdino _m∈\ _clip, _ssim, _ocr, _dino\ as evaluation weighting coefficients. Our detailed configurations are summarized in §E.1 and Tab. 6. F.1.2 Rule-as-Judge Code Evaluation For more comprehensive code evaluation, our rule-as-judge code evaluation assesses six complementary dimensions: code executability FexecF_exec (Eq. 25), code quality FcodebleuF_codebleu (Eq. 26), structural accuracy FastF_ast (Eq. 27), lexical accuracy FcosineF_cosine (Eq. 28), contextual accuracy FcodebertF_codebert, and semantic accuracy FunixcoderF_unixcoder. Concretely, given a model-predicted code c c and a reference code c, each metric targets a distinct dimension of code quality: Code Executability. FexecF_exec measures whether the predicted code executes successfully via the deterministic sandbox executor h (Eq. 1): Fexec(c^)=[h(c^)]∈0,1F_exec( c)= 1[h( c)]∈\0,1\ (25) We report FexecF_exec as a standalone execution success rate metric to complement the final code evaluation score FcodeF_code (Eq. 29). Code Quality. FcodebleuF_codebleu measures overall code similarity via CodeBLEU (Ren et al., 2020), computed as a weighted combination of four complementary dimensions: Fcodebleu(c^,c)=∑mγm⋅Fm(c^,c)F_codebleu( c,c)= _m _m· F_m( c,c) (26) where m∈ngram,wngram,syntax,dataflowm∈\ngram,wngram,syntax,dataflow\, with FngramF_ngram as n-gram match, FwngramF_wngram as weighted n-gram match, FsyntaxF_syntax as syntax tree match, and FdataflowF_dataflow as data-flow graph match. Structural Accuracy. FastF_ast measures structural similarity between c c and c via Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) sequence matching: Fast(c^,c) F_ast( c,c) =SequenceMatcher(AST(c^),AST(c)) = SequenceMatcher( AST( c),\, AST(c)) ∈[0,1] 10.00002pt∈[0,1] (27) where AST(⋅) AST(·) denotes the depth-first node label sequence of the parsed syntax tree, and SequenceMatcher computes the longest common subsequence (LCS) ratio. Lexical Accuracy. FcosineF_cosine measures token-level lexical similarity between c c and c via weighted cosine similarity over code tokens: Fcosine(c^,c)=(c^)⋅(c)‖(c^)‖⋅‖(c)‖∈[0,1]F_cosine( c,c)= w( c)·w(c)\|w( c)\|·\|w(c)\|∈[0,1] (28) where (⋅)w(·) denotes the TF-IDF (Salton and Buckley, 1988) weighted token vector over the vocabulary of identifier, number, and string tokens extracted via code tokenization. Contextual Accuracy. FcodebertF_codebert measures contextual similarity between c c and c via CodeBERT (Feng et al., 2020), capturing token-level contextual code representations by following the normalized embedding similarity formulation of simc sim_c (Eq. 4). Semantic Accuracy. FunixcoderF_unixcoder measures semantic similarity between c c and c via the unified cross-modal encoder of UniXcoder (Guo et al., 2022), capturing deeper code-to-code semantic correspondence by following the normalized embedding similarity formulation of simc sim_c (Eq. 4). Final Score. The final Rule-as-Judge code evaluation score FcodeF_code is the weighted combination across five dimensions: Fcode(c^,c)=∑mγm⋅Fm(c^,c)F_code( c,c)= _m _m· F_m( c,c) (29) where m∈codebleu,ast,cosine,codebert,unixcoderm∈\codebleu,ast,cosine,codebert,unixcoder\, with FexecF_exec (Eq. 25) reported separately as a standalone executability score (Tab. 1). Our detailed configurations are summarized in §E.1 and Tab. 6. F.1.3 Rule-as-Judge Table Evaluation Our rule-as-judge table evaluation assesses two complementary dimensions: schema accuracy and value accuracy. Concretely, given a model-predicted table t t and a reference table t, each metric targets a distinct dimension of table quality: Schema Accuracy. FschemaF_schema measures column-level F1 between t t and t, directly instantiating the schema accuracy formulation of tF_t (Eq. 12). Value Accuracy. FvalueF_value measures cell-level F1 over all (row,column,value)(row,column,value) triples between t t and t, directly instantiating the value accuracy formulation of tF_t (Eq. 12). Final Score. The final rule-as-judge table evaluation score FtableF_table is the weighted combination across two dimensions: Ftable(t^,t)=∑mγm⋅Fm(t^,t)F_table( t,t)= _m _m· F_m( t,t) (30) where m∈schema,valuem∈\schema,value\. Our detailed configurations are summarized in §E.1 and Tab. 6. F.1.4 Rule-as-Judge Constraint Evaluation Our rule-as-judge constraint evaluation assesses two complementary dimensions: semantic accuracy and lexical accuracy. Given a model-predicted constraint s s and a reference constraint sgts_gt, each metric targets a distinct dimension of constraint quality: Semantic Accuracy. Fssem=sF_ssem=F_s measures semantic similarity between s s and sgts_gt via sentence-level cosine similarity, directly instantiating the formulation of sF_s (Eq. 11). Lexical Accuracy. FrougeF_rouge measures lexical similarity between s s and sgts_gt via ROUGE-L (Lin, 2004): Frouge(s^,sgt)=FLCS(s^,sgt)∈[0,1]F_rouge( s,s_gt)=F_LCS( s,s_gt)∈[0,1] (31) where FLCSF_LCS denotes the F1 score computed over the longest common subsequence of tokens between the predicted and reference constraints. Final Score. The final rule-as-judge constraint evaluation score FconstraintF_constraint is the weighted combination across two dimensions: Fconstraint(s^,sgt)=∑mγm⋅Fm(s^,sgt)F_constraint( s,s_gt)= _m _m· F_m( s,s_gt) (32) where m∈ssem,rougem∈\ssem,rouge\. Our detailed configurations are summarized in §E.1 and Tab. 6. F.2 LLM-as-Judge Evaluation Existing LLM-as-judge approaches for code evaluation collapse complex semantic and structural fidelity into a single and/or wide-range score, which LLMs are known to judge inconsistently and unreliably (§3.5). To address these limitations, our CoCoEvolve@Eval proposes LLM-as-judge evaluation that decomposes code quality into five fine-grained, independently scored dimensions, each targeting a distinct and non-overlapping dimension of visualization code quality (Fig. 14). Concretely, given the ground-truth code c and predicted code c c, the judge reasons about the expected rendered output via static code analysis, scoring each dimension on a 0–55 integer scale, and then normalizing to [0,1][0,1]. 1 Data Correctness: correctness of underlying data values, categories, transformations, and their correspondence to the intended chart structure. 2 Chart Type Accuracy: correctness of chart type, subtype, dimensionality, and geometry (e.g., grouped vs. stacked bars, single vs. multiple lines). 3 Structural Fidelity: correctness of layout, subplot configuration, axes, labels, titles, annotations, scales, ticks, legends, and grid configuration. 4 Visual Accuracy: correctness of data-to-visual encoding mappings, including positions, heights, trends, grouping, stacking, and category alignment. 5 Style Accuracy: correctness of colors, colormaps, marker types, sizes, transparency, line widths, fills, and other aesthetic details of each chart element. The final LLM-as-Judge code evaluation score JcodeJ_code is the weighted combination across five dimensions: Jcode(c^,c)=∑mγm⋅Jm(c^,c)J_code( c,c)= _m _m· J_m( c,c) (33) where m∈Cdatam∈\Cdata,Ctype, Cstruct, Cvisual, CstyleCstyle\. Our detailed configurations are summarized in §E.1 and Tab. 6. F.3 MLLM-as-Judge Evaluation Similar to LLM-as-judge, existing MLLM-as-judge approaches collapse complex visual and structural fidelity into a single wide-range score, which MLLMs are known to judge unreliably and inconsistently (§3.5).For more reliable MLLM judgments, our CoCoEvolve@Eval decomposes each evaluation into five fine-grained, independently scored dimensions, each targeting a distinct and non-overlapping aspect of model prediction quality, scoring each dimension on a 0–55 integer scale normalized to [0,100][0,100]. CoCoEvolve@Eval includes three MLLM-as-judge evaluators: chart evaluation (§F.3.1), table evaluation (§F.3.2), and constraint evaluation (§F.3.3), respectively. F.3.1 MLLM-as-Judge Chart Evaluation Given the ground-truth chart image v and predicted chart image v v, the judge directly compares the two rendered images across five dimensions, as detailed in Fig. 13: 1 Chart Type Accuracy: correctness of chart type and subtype, including exact match of chart geometry and dimensionality (e.g., grouped vs. stacked bars, pie vs. donut). 2 Data Accuracy: accuracy of data values, proportions, magnitudes, and precisions as visually perceived in the predicted chart. 3 Text Accuracy: correctness of all text elements, including titles, axis labels, tick values, legend entries, and annotations, together with their positions and formatting. 4 Style Accuracy: correctness of visual styles of chart elements, including colors, colormaps, markers, line styles, fills, and their assignment to the correct data series. 5 Visual Accuracy: correctness of overall visual layout, spatial relationships, and structural details, including figure proportions, subplot arrangement, spacing, stacking order, category ordering, trends, and decorative details such as gridlines, error bars, and reference lines. The final MLLM-as-judge chart evaluation score JchartJ_chart is the weighted combination across five dimensions: Jchart(v^,v)=∑mγm⋅Jm(v^,v)J_chart( v,v)= _m _m· J_m( v,v) (34) where m∈Vtype,Vdata,Vtext,Vstyle,Vvisualm∈\Vtype,Vdata,Vtext,Vstyle,Vvisual\. Our detailed configurations are summarized in §E.1 and Tab. 6. F.3.2 MLLM-as-Judge Table Evaluation Given the ground-truth table t, predicted table t t, ground-truth code c, and ground-truth chart image v as reference context, the judge evaluates the predicted table across five dimensions, as detailed in Fig. 15: 1 Schema Accuracy: correctness of column headers and table structure, penalizing missing, extra, or incorrectly named columns. 2 Data Accuracy: correctness of all cell values compared to ground truth, penalizing hallucinated, incorrect, or miscomputed values. 3 Data Coverage: completeness of extracted data relative to ground truth, penalizing missing rows or partially captured data. 4 Row Alignment: correctness of row ordering and alignment of values across all columns. 5 Format Correctness: validity of table structure, including correct column-keyed format, string-typed values, equal-length columns, and correct representation of missing values. The final MLLM-as-judge table evaluation score JtableJ_table is the weighted combination across five dimensions: Jtable(t^,t)=∑mγm⋅Jm(t^,t)J_table( t,t)= _m _m· J_m( t,t) (35) where m∈Tschemam∈\Tschema, Tdata, Tcoverage,TrowTcoverage,Trow, TformatTformat\. Our detailed configurations are summarized in §E.1 and Tab. 6. F.3.3 MLLM-as-Judge Constraint Evaluation Given the ground-truth constraint sgts_gt, predicted constraint s s, ground-truth code c, and ground-truth chart image v as reference context, the judge evaluates the predicted constraint across five dimensions, as detailed in Fig. 16: 1 Visual Fidelity: correctness of all key visual contents and data values described in s s relative to sgts_gt, penalizing missing, incorrect, or hallucinated contents and values. 2 Visual Completeness: completeness of all important visual elements described in s s, including axes, labels, legends, trends, categories, and colors, penalizing missing key components needed for chart reconstruction. 3 Structural Clarity: quality of organization of s s in support of chart reproduction, including clarity of relationships between visual elements. 4 Trend and Relationship Accuracy: correctness of described trends, comparisons, and relationships between data elements, penalizing incorrect interpretations such as wrong directional trends. 5 Style Accuracy: correctness and completeness of described plotting colors and styles, penalizing incorrect or missing style descriptions. The final MLLM-as-judge constraint evaluation score JconstraintJ_constraint is the weighted combination across five dimensions: Jconstraint(s^,sgt)=∑mγm⋅Jm(s^,sgt)J_constraint( s,s_gt)= _m _m· J_m( s,s_gt) (36) where m∈Sfidelitym∈\Sfidelity, Scompleteness, Sclarity, Strend, SstyleSstyle\. Our detailed configurations are summarized in §E.1 and Tab. 6. Appendix G Analysis on Cross-Representation Failures G.1 Quantitative Analysis on Cross-Representation Failures Leveraging five-dimensional evaluation for each representation (§3.5), Fig. 10 presents the failure distribution of cross-representation understanding for the baseline, CoCoEvolve@Train, and CoCoEvolve@Train+@Test. As the results show, CoCoEvolve substantially outperforms the non-finetuned base model, achieving an overall improvement of up tp Δ=↑35.10% = 35.10\%. This gain is primarily accompanied by notable reductions in data-related errors across different representations, while the remaining categories of failures are also consistently alleviated. This finding underscores the importance of data accuracy and information completeness for cross-representation understanding success. Furthermore, applying CoCoEvolve@Test leads to additional reductions across all five failure dimensions of each representation. Its resulting correctness improvement of up to Δ=↑41.38% = 41.38\% further validates the effectiveness of CoCoEvolve in optimizing model cross-representation understanding during both training and testing. G.2 Qualitative Analysis on Cross-Representation Failures To qualitatively analyze cross-representation failures of different models, we manually inspect model outputs and evaluate how each model performs. Overall, larger models showcase stronger cross-representation understanding capabilities than smaller-scale models. Through detailed examination, Fig. 18 illustrates a relatively simple case in which chart elements are explicitly labeled, mitigating the negative impact of inaccurate data extraction. However, Claude-4.6-Sonnet still exhibits style-related errors, failing to preserve the correct value ranges and color encodings. On the other hand, Fig. 17 shows the cross-representation outputs of Qwen3-4B-VL, revealing that its primary failures stem from data recognition and extraction errors. These inaccuracies also exist across representations and modalities, leading to inconsistent outputs. Its failures in color encoding and cross-representation consistency further highlight the importance of systematic evaluation signals for both accurately assessing cross-representation understanding and guiding model learning and optimization. Notation Definition Representation Spaces & Data ,,,V,T,C,S Spaces of chart images, tabular data, visualization code, and descriptive constraints v,t,c,sv,t,c,s A chart image, table, visualization code, and constraint v^,t^,c^,s v, t, c, s Model-predicted chart image, table, code, and constraint sgt,tgts_gt,t_gt Ground-truth constraint and table annotations Models, Policies & Task Mappings Mθ,MψM_θ,M_ψ Perform →V and →T , respectively, with constraints πθ,πψ _θ, _ψ Policies parameterizing MθM_θ and MψM_ψ during RL training πθref,πψref _θ^ref, _ψ^ref Frozen reference policies for KL regularization fθf_θ, gψg_ψ, h Task mappings instantiated by MθM_θ, MψM_ψ, and sandbox executer, respectively Teacher Module & Training Configuration ℳM Optional teacher module providing ground-truth conditioning context α,αstart,αendα, _start, _end Teacher-guidance fraction and its initial/final values under linear annealing ϕ(⋅)φ(·) Sentence embedding function via SentenceBERT Ntrain,Nepoch,lrN_train,N_epoch,lr Total training steps, epochs, and initial learning rate for AdamW Rollouts & Sampling oθ(i),oψ(i,k)o_θ^(i),o_ψ^(i,k) i-th rollout (s^(i),t^(i),c^θ(i))( s^(i), t^(i), c_θ^(i)) from πθ _θ; k-th rollout from πψ _ψ conditioned on oθ(i)o_θ^(i) Kθ,KψK_θ,K_ψ Number of rollouts sampled per chart from πθ _θ; per πθ _θ rollout from πψ _ψ B Global batch size τ Token position index within a rollout sequence ρθ,τ(i),ρψ,τ(i,k) _θ,τ^(i), _ψ,τ^(i,k) Per-token importance ratios for πθ _θ and πψ _ψ at token position τ ϵ,β,δε,β,δ Clipping threshold, KL penalty coefficient, and numerical stabilizer Rewards & Advantage Estimation c,v,fF_c,F_v,F_f Code consistency, visual consistency, and format reward components s,tF_s,F_t Constraint and table grounding rewards (teacher mode only) simc(ca,cb) sim_c(c_a,c_b) Normalized code embedding cosine similarity between cac_a and cbc_b ea,eb,ebasee_a,e_b,e_base Code embeddings of cac_a, cbc_b, and the baseline anchor in simc sim_c eclip(⋅),edino(⋅)e_clip(·),e_dino(·) Visual embedding functions of CLIP and DINOv2 Rθ,Rψ,Rθ+R_θ,R_ψ,R_θ^+ Hierarchical rewards for πθ _θ, πψ _ψ, and πθ _θ under teacher-guided mode rθ,rψr_θ,r_ψ Paired reward functionals depending on both models’ outputs r¯θ(i) r_θ^(i) πθ _θ reward marginalized over KψK_ψ children rollouts Aθ(i),Aψ(i,k)A_θ^(i),A_ψ^(i,k) Normalized advantages for πθ _θ rollout i and πψ _ψ rollout (i,k)(i,k) μθ,σθ,μψ(i),σψ(i) _θ, _θ, _ψ^(i), _ψ^(i) Mean and std for πθ _θ and πψ _ψ advantage normalization Rule-as-Judge Evaluation Metrics Fclip,Fssim,Focr,FdinoF_clip,F_ssim,F_ocr,F_dino Chart evaluation: semantic, structural, textual, and perceptual accuracy FexecF_exec Code executability: binary sandbox execution success Fcodebleu,Fast,Fcosine,Fcodebert,FunixcoderF_codebleu,F_ast,F_cosine,F_codebert,F_unixcoder Code evaluation: quality, structural, lexical, contextual, and semantic accuracy Fngram,Fwngram,Fsyntax,FdataflowF_ngram,F_wngram,F_syntax,F_dataflow Four sub-dimensions of CodeBLEU comprising FcodebleuF_codebleu Fschema,FvalueF_schema,F_value Table evaluation: column-level schema F1 and cell-level value F1 Fssem,Frouge,FLCSF_ssem,F_rouge,F_LCS Constraint evaluation: semantic accuracy, ROUGE-L, and LCS F1 FchartF_chart, FcodeF_code, FtableF_table, FconstraintF_constraint Final rule-as-judge score for chart, code, table, and constraint evaluation LLM-as-Judge Evaluation Metrics (prefix C: code) JCdata,JCtype,JCstruct,JCvisual,JCstyleJ_Cdata,J_Ctype,J_Cstruct,J_Cvisual,J_Cstyle LLM-as-judge code dimensions: data correctness, chart type, structural fidelity, visual and style accuracy JcodeJ_code Final LLM-as-judge code evaluation score Notation Definition MLLM-as-Judge Evaluation Metrics (prefixes V: chart, T: table, S: constraint) JVtype,JVdata,JVtext,JVstyle,JVvisualJ_Vtype,J_Vdata,J_Vtext,J_Vstyle,J_Vvisual MLLM-as-judge chart dimensions: type, data, text, style, and visual accuracy JTschema,JTdata,JTcoverage,JTrow,JTformatJ_Tschema,J_Tdata,J_Tcoverage,J_Trow,J_Tformat MLLM-as-judge table dimensions: schema, data, coverage, row alignment, and format correctness JSfidelity,JScompleteness,JSclarity,JStrend,JSstyleJ_Sfidelity,J_Scompleteness,J_Sclarity,J_Strend,J_Sstyle MLLM-as-judge constraint dimensions: fidelity, completeness, clarity, trend accuracy, and style JchartJ_chart, JtableJ_table, JconstraintJ_constraint Final MLLM-as-judge score for chart, table, and constraint evaluation Weighting Coefficient Families ω∗(π) _*^(π) Sub-weights within a reward component λ∗(π) _*^(π) Weighting coefficients combining reward components during training γ∗ _* Weighting coefficients combining metrics during evaluation Dataset & Filtering Thresholds linput,lcode,ltable,lconstraint,ltimeoutl_input,l_code,l_table,l_constraint,l_timeout Token thresholds for input, code, table, and constraint; sandbox execution timeout Table 4: Notation and Symbol Reference. We summarize core symbols and notations used in this paper, grouped by functional role. The three weighting coefficient families are intentionally distinct: ω∗ _* denotes sub-weights within a reward component, λ∗ _* denotes weights combining reward components during training, and γ∗ _* denotes weights combining metrics during evaluation. LLM-as-judge and MLLM-as-judge dimension scores use prefixes C, V, T, S to disambiguate dimensions sharing the same name across evaluators. Method GPU API Cost Time Training Baseline 4× H100 96GB – 86h / run CoCoEvolve (ℳM disabled) 4× H100 96GB – 77h / run CoCoEvolve (ℳM enabled, no annealing) 4× H100 96GB – 71h / run CoCoEvolve (ℳM enabled, with annealing) 4× H100 96GB – 72h / run Evaluation Baseline 4× H100 96GB $0.8637 / sample 128.72s / sample CoCoEvolve 4× H100 96GB $0.5674 / sample 77.63s / sample CoCoEvolve (w/ CoCoEvolve@Test) 4× H100 96GB $0.2382 / sample 71.88s / sample Table 5: Computation Overhead. We summarize GPU resources, API cost, and wall-clock time for main training configurations and evaluation. API cost is calculated for per sample averaged across all evaluation benchmarks and decreases with CoCoEvolve@Test. Wall-clock time for training is calculated for per full training run; for evaluation it is calculated for per sample averaged across all benchmarks. “–” indicates no API cost is incurred during training. Parameter MθM_θ MψM_ψ Dataset Construction linputl_input 8,192 8,192 lcodel_code 8,192 8,192 ltablel_table 8,192 8,192 lconstraintl_constraint 8,192 8,192 ltimeoutl_timeout 60 60 Main Training (ℳM Disabled) NepochN_epoch 2 2 NtrainN_train 200 200 B 8 8 KθK_θ, KψK_ψ 4, 4 4, 4 lr 1×10−61× 10^-6 1×10−61× 10^-6 α 0 0 λf(π) _f^(π) 0.1 0.1 λc(π) _c^(π) 0.05 0.2 λπ _π 0.7 0.7 λv(π) _v^(π) 0.05 0.2 ωe(π) _e^(π) 0.9 0.7 ωs(π) _s^(π) 0.1 0.3 ωclip(π) _clip^(π) 0.25 0.25 ωssim(π) _ssim^(π) 0.25 0.25 ωocr(π) _ocr^(π) 0.25 0.25 ωdino(π) _dino^(π) 0.25 0.25 Ablation Study: Teacher Module (ℳM Enabled, No Annealing) αstart _start 1.0 1.0 αend _end 1.0 1.0 λs(θ) _s^(θ) 0.2 – λt(θ) _t^(θ) 0.3 – ωschema(θ) _schema^(θ) 0.5 – ωvalue(θ) _value^(θ) 0.5 – Ablation Study: Teacher Module (ℳM Enabled, With Annealing) αstart _start 1.0 1.0 αend _end 0.0 0.0 Ablation Study: Consistency Reward Weighting λc(π) _c^(π) 0.2 0.2 λv(π) _v^(π) 0.2 0.2 λπ _π 0.5 0.5 ωe(π) _e^(π) 0.5 0.5 ωs(π) _s^(π) 0.5 0.5 Evaluation γ∗ _* in FchartF_chart 0.25 0.25 γ∗ _* in FcodeF_code 0.20 0.20 γ∗ _* in FbleuF_bleu 0.25 0.25 γ∗ _* in FtableF_table 0.50 0.50 γ∗ _* in FconstraintF_constraint 0.50 0.50 γ∗ _* in JcodeJ_code 0.20 0.20 γ∗ _* in JchartJ_chart 0.20 0.20 γ∗ _* in JtableJ_table 0.20 0.20 γ∗ _* in JconstraintJ_constraint 0.20 0.20 Table 6: Experiment Configuration. We summarize our core hyperparameter settings across different experimental stages. Parameters specific to teacher mode (λs(θ),λt(θ),ωschema(θ),ωvalue(θ) _s^(θ), _t^(θ), _schema^(θ), _value^(θ)) apply to MθM_θ only and are marked “–” for MψM_ψ. Ablation study rows list only parameters that differ from the corresponding main training setting. In our evaluation, we set the evaluation weighting coefficients γ∗ _* to be uniform within each score. Figure 13: MLLM-as-Judge for Chart Evaluation. Our MLLM-as-judge for chart evaluation assesses predicted chart against ground-truth chart across five fine-grained dimensions, including chart type accuracy, data accuracy, text accuracy, style accuracy, and visual accuracy (§F.3.1). Each dimension is scored on a 0–55 integer scale with detailed instructions from reasoning to scoring, addressing the key limitations in existing MLLM-as-judge approaches (§3.5). Figure 14: LLM-as-Judge for Code Evaluation. Our LLM-as-judge evaluates predicted visualization code against ground-truth code across five fine-grained dimensions, including data correctness, chart type accuracy, structural fidelity, visual accuracy, and style accuracy (§F.2). Each dimension is scored on a 0–55 integer scale with detailed instructions from reasoning to scoring, addressing the key limitations in existing LLM-as-judge approaches (§3.5). Figure 15: MLLM-as-Judge for Table Evaluation. Our MLLM-as-judge for table evaluation assesses the extracted table against the reference table across five fine-grained dimensions, including schema accuracy, data accuracy, data coverage, row alignment, and format correctness (§F.3.2). Each dimension is scored on a 0–55 integer scale with detailed instructions from reasoning to scoring, addressing the key limitations in existing MLLM-as-judge approaches (§3.5). Figure 16: MLLM-as-Judge for Constraint Evaluation. Our MLLM-as-judge for constraint evaluation assesses the predicted constraint against the reference constraint across five fine-grained dimensions, including visual fidelity, visual completeness, structural clarity, trend & relation accuracy, and style accuracy (§F.3.3). Each dimension is scored on a 0–55 integer scale with detailed instructions from reasoning to scoring, addressing the key limitations in existing MLLM-as-judge approaches (§3.5). Figure 17: Cross-Representation Understanding Failure Example of Qwen3-4B-VL. A case study on Qwen3-4B-VL cross-representation understanding failures, illustrating how small-size models produce data recognition errors that accumulate and propagate across representations, resulting in inaccurate data extraction, incomplete information transfer, and significant cross-representation inconsistencies. Constraints are omitted for clarity. Figure 18: Cross-Representation Understanding Failure Example of Claude-4.6-Sonnet. A case study on Claude-4.6-Sonnet cross-representation understanding failures. This example is a simpler bar chart, with value labels to support accurate data recognition and extraction. Nevertheless, small errors still exist even for larger-size models, such as inaccurate data range and color encoding, resulting in data visualization inaccuracies and cross-representation inconsistencies. Constraints are omitted for clarity.