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Manifold Drift in Flow Preference Optimization: A Root Cause of Reward Hacking
Yansen Han, Shengyi Liao, Yuanxing Zhang, Pengfei Wan, Tao Lin
Intelligence
Status: succeeded | Model: Gemma-4-26B-A4B | Prompt: intel-v1 | Confidence: 93%
Last extracted: 8/21/2026, 4:01:37 AM
Summary
The paper identifies 'manifold drift' as a root cause of reward hacking in continuous-time flow preference optimization, where reward-driven updates move terminal samples off the pretrained data manifold. To address this, the authors propose ThermoDPO, a temperature-controlled objective that anchors preference optimization on preferred samples to preserve manifold structure. A weighted variant, ThermoDPO-weighted, is introduced to handle low-temperature signal issues. Experiments show ThermoDPO-weighted outperforms FlowDPO and FlowDPO+RFT in metrics like StrictScore, OCR, and visual quality preservation.
Entities (9)
Relation Signals (6)
ThermoDPO → mitigates → Manifold Drift
confidence 95% · ThermoDPO, a temperature-controlled objective that anchors pairwise preference optimization on preferred samples... controls a pointwise reconstruction-based surrogate for manifold distance.
ThermoDPO-weighted → outperforms → FlowDPO
confidence 93% · On the main toy benchmark, ThermoDPO-weighted attains a StrictScore of 0.899, compared with 0.629 for FlowDPO
ThermoDPO-weighted → outperforms → FlowDPO+RFT
confidence 93% · compared with 0.629 for FlowDPO and 0.857 for FlowDPO+RFT.
Manifold Drift → causedby → FlowDPO
confidence 92% · FlowDPO (green) may reach preferred regions through an off-manifold displacement... The result is loss-agnostic: it does not assert that every FlowDPO update drifts, but identifies a nonzero normal component as sufficient.
ThermoDPO → connects → Rejection Sampling Fine-Tuning
confidence 90% · Across temperature regimes, this objective connects rejection sampling fine-tuning and FlowDPO
ThermoDPO → connects → FlowDPO
confidence 90% · Across temperature regimes, this objective connects rejection sampling fine-tuning and FlowDPO
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Abstract
Abstract:Preference optimization is a standard alignment method for generative models, yet extending it to continuous-time dynamics remains non-trivial. In flow matching, reward-driven updates modify transport trajectories without an inherent constraint to the pretrained data manifold and can move terminal samples off the pretrained support. We formalize this failure mode as manifold drift. Theoretically, we show that optimal flow matching recovers the terminal data distribution, whereas a preference update leaves the pretrained manifold whenever its induced terminal displacement has a nonzero normal component. As a remedy, we propose ThermoDPO, a temperature-controlled objective that anchors pairwise preference optimization on preferred samples. Across temperature regimes, this objective connects rejection sampling fine-tuning and FlowDPO and controls a pointwise reconstruction-based surrogate for manifold distance. To counteract diminished signals at low temperatures, we further introduce a weighted variant, ThermoDPO-weighted. On the main toy benchmark, ThermoDPO-weighted attains a StrictScore of 0.899, compared with 0.629 for FlowDPO and 0.857 for FlowDPO+RFT. On SD3.5-M at CFG = 4.5, it improves OCR by 47.5% and the average of four metrics by 16.0%.
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- Source: https://arxiv.org/abs/2608.20011v1
- Canonical: https://arxiv.org/abs/2608.20011v1
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_set:Ne tcboxmath _set:Ne Manifold Drift in Flow Preference Optimization: A Root Cause of Reward Hacking Yansen Han Affiliation: Zhejiang University Shengyi Liao Affiliation: Kling Team, Kuaishou Technology Yuanxing Zhang Affiliation: Kling Team, Kuaishou Technology Pengfei Wan Affiliation: Kling Team, Kuaishou Technology Tao Lin Affiliation: Corresponding author [0.5em] Equal contribution [0.25em] Westlake University Abstract Preference optimization is a standard alignment method for generative models, yet extending it to continuous-time dynamics remains non-trivial. In flow matching, reward-driven updates modify transport trajectories without an inherent constraint to the pretrained data manifold and can move terminal samples off the pretrained support. We formalize this failure mode as manifold drift. Theoretically, we show that optimal flow matching recovers the terminal data distribution, whereas a preference update leaves the pretrained manifold whenever its induced terminal displacement has a nonzero normal component. As a remedy, we propose ThermoDPO, a temperature-controlled objective that anchors pairwise preference optimization on preferred samples. Across temperature regimes, this objective connects rejection sampling fine-tuning and FlowDPO and controls a pointwise reconstruction-based surrogate for manifold distance. To counteract diminished signals at low temperatures, we further introduce a weighted variant, ThermoDPO-weighted. On the main toy benchmark, ThermoDPO-weighted attains a StrictScore of 0.8990.899, compared with 0.6290.629 for FlowDPO and 0.8570.857 for FlowDPO+RFT. On SD3.5-M at CFG =4.5=4.5, it improves OCR by 47.5%47.5\% and the average of four metrics by 16.0%16.0\%. Figure 1: Comparison of FlowDPO (left) and ThermoDPO-weighted (right). FlowDPO improves preference with manifold drift, whereas ThermoDPO-weighted improves preference while preserving quality. 1 Introduction Direct Preference Optimization (DPO) has established itself as a simple and effective paradigm for aligning discrete generative models with human judgments [51, 47, 56, 58]. Motivated by this success, recent work has begun extending preference optimization to continuous generative models, including diffusion models [23, 54, 55, 60, 9] and flow-based models [2, 37, 57, 38]. This direction is crucial as these models now underpin state-of-the-art image and video generation, where preference alignment is essential for controllability. Figure 2: Core intuition of ThermoDPO. Flow Matching (gray) transports noise to the pretrained data manifold. FlowDPO (green) may reach preferred regions through an off-manifold displacement, whereas ThermoDPO (red) adds a winner-side anchor intended to keep the redirected mass closer to the pretrained manifold. The formal statements and their assumptions are summarized in Tab. 1; the behavior is evaluated in the toy study (Fig. 3) and real-image study (Fig. 1). However, transferring DPO to continuous generative models is not straightforward. Unlike discrete models that primarily reweight the probabilities of completed outputs, continuous models generate samples by transporting noise along learned trajectories toward the data manifold. Optimization in this setting therefore modifies not only output selection but also the transport dynamics themselves. Although prior studies have noted empirical performance drops when applying DPO to continuous models [9, 39], these findings have remained largely experimental observations. In this paper, we argue that such degradation stems from a fundamental structural cause: reward-driven updates steer trajectories toward preferred regions only weakly supported by the pretrained data manifold, a failure mode we formalize as Manifold Drift. Beyond a simple geometric deviation, this drift damages the pretrained generative prior, leading to visibly degraded sample quality. We characterize this problem in Sec. 3 through theoretical analysis and supporting analytical evidence (see Fig. 3). To address these challenges, we introduce ThermoDPO, which constrains trajectory endpoints to the pretrained manifold via a temperature-controlled anchor. Analytically, ThermoDPO unifies preference alignment and manifold preservation: it recovers rejection sampling fine-tuning (RFT) [65, 5] as τ↓0τ 0, while for τ>0τ>0, it decomposes into a temperature-scaled FlowDPO [39] objective and a nonnegative anchoring term. This decomposition reveals an explicit trade-off between reward maximization and manifold drift. To resolve practical weighting issues near t=0t=0, we also propose a reweighted variant, ThermoDPO-weighted. As shown in Fig. 2, ThermoDPO directs updates toward preferred regions while remaining anchored to the pretrained support, rather than treating alignment and preservation as conflicting goals. Our experiments on both synthetic and real-world image benchmarks confirm that ThermoDPO-weighted achieves a superior trade-off, significantly improving target metrics without compromising sample fidelity. Our main contributions are as follows: • We identify and formalize manifold drift, a failure mode in continuous preference optimization where the terminal of fine-tuned trajectories is away from the pretrained terminal manifold. • We propose ThermoDPO, a method that augments pairwise preference optimization with a winner-side manifold anchor, and introduce a reweighted implementation, ThermoDPO-weighted, to ensure robust preservation of the terminal manifold in practice. • We provide theoretical guarantees for both the ThermoDPO and the ThermoDPO-weighted, showing that it bridges rejection sampling fine-tuning and FlowDPO, while providing an upper bound on a reconstruction-based surrogate for manifold drift. • We empirically demonstrate on a toy manifold and real-image benchmarks that ThermoDPO-weighted achieves a superior trade-off between preference alignment and manifold preservation compared to FlowDPO variants, improving target metrics without sacrificing visual quality. 2 Preliminaries 2.1 Flow Matching Flow Matching [37, 2] learns a time-dependent vector field that transports a simple prior distribution p1p_1 to the data distribution p0p_0. Let 0∼p0x_0 p_0 denote a data sample and 1∼p1x_1 p_1 denote a noise sample. Under the linear interpolation used throughout this paper, 1x_1 is equivalently written as ϵε. For t∈[0,1]t∈[0,1], define t=(1−t)⋅0+t⋅1,x_t=(1-t)·x_0+t·x_1\,, so generation proceeds from the noise endpoint t=1t=1 to the data endpoint t=0t=0. The standard flow matching objective fits a vector field vθv_θ to the conditional velocity along this path: ℒFM(θ)=(0,1,t)[‖vθ(t,t)−(1−0)‖2].L_FM(θ)=E_(x_0,x_1,t) [\|v_θ(x_t,t)-(x_1-x_0)\|^2 ]\,. Here (0,1)∼γ(x_0,x_1) γ for a coupling γ of p0p_0 and p1p_1, and t∼Unif[0,1]t [0,1]. The learned vector field induces a flow map Φ1→tθ ^θ_1→ t by solving the ODE dsds=vθ(s,s) dx_sds=v_θ(x_s,s) from s=1s=1 to s=ts=t. 2.2 Direct Preference Optimization (DPO) in Continuous-Time Models For a preference dataset =(c,0w,0l)D=\(c,x_0^w,x_0^l)\, standard DPO [51] compares the log-likelihoods of winner 0wx_0^w and loser 0lx_0^l under the current model πθ _θ against a frozen reference model πref _ref: ℒDPO(θ)=−(c,0w,0l)∼[logσ(βlogπθ(0w|c)πref(0w|c)−βlogπθ(0l|c)πref(0l|c))].L_DPO(θ)=-E_(c,x_0^w,x_0^l) [ σ (β _θ(x^w_0|c) _ref(x^w_0|c)-β _θ(x^l_0|c) _ref(x^l_0|c) ) ]. (1) Since evaluating exact log-likelihoods is computationally prohibitive for continuous models during training, prior works [39, 38, 71, 60] replace logπθ(0∣c) _θ(x_0 c) with timestep-wise surrogates ‖vθ(t,t)−(1−0)‖2\|v_θ(x_t,t)-(x_1-x_0)\|^2. DiffusionDPO [60] uses denoising error, while FlowDPO [39] applies DPO to the flow matching regression loss. To derive FlowDPO, we define the following notations with omitted shared condition c: ℓθw/l _θ^w/l :=‖vθ(tw/l,t)−(1w/l−0w/l)‖2, :=\|v_θ(x_t^w/l,t)-(x_1^w/l-x_0^w/l)\|^2, ℓrefw/l _ref^w/l :=‖vref(tw/l,t)−(1w/l−0w/l)‖2, :=\|v_ref(x_t^w/l,t)-(x_1^w/l-x_0^w/l)\|^2, (2) Δθw _θ^w :=ℓθw−ℓrefw, := _θ^w- _ref^w, Δθl _θ^l :=ℓθl−ℓrefl. := _θ^l- _ref^l. (3) With vθv_θ and vrefv_ref as the corresponding vector fields, the FlowDPO objective is: ℒFlowDPO(θ)=[−logσ(−β(Δθw−Δθl))].L_FlowDPO(θ)=E [- σ\! (-β( _θ^w- _θ^l) ) ]\,. Table 1: Theorems’ roadmap. The analysis proceeds from characterizing manifold preservation and drift, through connecting ThermoDPO to RFT and FlowDPO, to controlling winner-side manifold drift. Result Main statement I. Manifold preservation and drift Thm. 3.4 FM can exactly recover p0p_0 and its terminal support (gray path in Fig. 2). Thm. 3.5 A nonzero normal component in the induced endpoint update is sufficient for off-manifold drift (green path in Fig. 2). I. Connection to RFT and FlowDPO Thm. 4.1 As τ↓0τ 0, ThermoDPO conditionally reduces to the RFT objective. Thm. 4.2 For τ>0τ>0, ThermoDPO decomposes into FlowDPO and a winner-side anchor. I. Manifold drift control Thm. 4.3 The pointwise loss upper-bounds the reconstructed winner’s squared distance to ℳdataM_data (red path in Fig. 2); it is not a distribution-level guarantee. 3 Manifold Drift in Continuous Preference Optimization Motivation: manifold support and the drift problem. Preference optimization typically starts from a pretrained reference model with vector field vrefv_ref and flow map Φ1→tref ^ref_1→ t. Following the manifold hypothesis [14, 29], we assume natural data concentrate near a lower-dimensional set ℳdata:=supp(p0)M_data:=supp(p_0). In practice, we use the pretrained terminal manifold as an operational proxy for this set: ℳ0:=supp((Φ1→0ref)#p1).M_0:=supp\! (( ^ref_1→ 0)_\#p_1 )\,. For any learned model θ, we denote its terminal sample and distribution as 0:=Φ1→0θ(1)x_0:= ^θ_1→ 0(x_1) and μθ:=(Φ1→0θ)#p1 _θ:=( ^θ_1→ 0)_\#p_1. The problem of manifold drift arises when preference optimization steers μθ _θ away from ℳ0M_0 toward regions that lack generative support. To rigorously analyze this, we first establish formal characterizations of terminal on-manifold flows (Def. 3.1) and manifold drift (Def. 3.2). Definition 3.1 (Terminal on-manifold flow). Let ℳ0⊂ℝdM_0 ^d denote the pretrained terminal manifold, and let μθ:=(Φ1→0θ)#p1 _θ:=( ^θ_1→ 0)_\#p_1 denote the terminal distribution induced by the fine-tuned flow map Φ1→0θ ^θ_1→ 0. We say that Φ1→0θ ^θ_1→ 0 is terminally on-manifold if supp(μθ)⊆ℳ0.supp( _θ) _0\,. Definition 3.2 (Manifold drift). Let μθ:=(Φ1→0θ)#p1 _θ:=( ^θ_1→ 0)_\#p_1 denote the terminal distribution induced by the fine-tuned flow map Φ1→0θ ^θ_1→ 0. We say that Φ1→0θ ^θ_1→ 0 exhibits manifold drift with respect to the pretrained terminal manifold ℳ0M_0 if supp(μθ)⊈ℳ0.supp( _θ) _0\,. Remark 3.3 (Intuitive Interpretation). The manifold ℳ0M_0 can be considered as the ground-truth image manifold by manifold hypothesis or the terminal manifold learned during pretraining. The intended role of preference optimization is to reweight probability mass toward preferred regions while preserving the semantic and perceptual structure learned during pretraining. Manifold drift refers to the failure of this preservation: the aligned flow may move terminal samples outside the pretrained terminal manifold, potentially causing visual artifacts, semantic distortions, or degradation in sample fidelity, which is typically considered as a result of reward hacking. Preferred samples should not be outside the pretrained terminal manifold. We agree that moving beyond the pretrained manifold can be beneficial when fine-tuning a weak baseline. Our claim is that the manifold drift is theoretically illegal and can be practically risky. • Theoretical interpretation: DPO [51] is derived from KL-regularized reward maximization: maxθπθ[r(x)]−βDKL(πθ||πref) _θE_ _θ [r(x) ]-β D_KL( _θ|| _ref), whose optimal solution is πθ∝πrefexp(r(x)/β) _θ _ref (r(x)/β). This implies supp(π∗)⊆supp(πref)supp(π^*) supp( _ref), and thus the original goal of DPO objective is to condense the probability within the high-reward region of the support manifold. However, practical flow-based RL often removes this constraint and directly optimizes the vector field. • Practical interpretation: we can categorize the reward function into two types: manifold-aware and manifold-unaware. (1) Manifold-unaware reward: OCR is in this type because it only considers the correctness of the text in the generated image rather than the validity of the whole image. Therefore, using this kind of reward function, we can easily notice the manifold drift. (2) Manifold-aware reward: Pickscore is in this type because it focuses on the quality of the whole image, and thus fine-tuning with this kind of reward can hardly notice the manifold drift (still can happen). Using this kind of reward, FlowDPO can achieve higher reward due to manifold drift, while the valid visual quality make us unconscious about manifold drift. Even though we only test this problem in image generation, we think manifold drift is more dangerous in robotics, because manifold drift means out-of-distribution behavior, i.e., unexpected behavior. Optimal flow matching preserves the terminal manifold. Thm. 3.4 states that, under exact optimization and the listed regularity assumptions, the induced FM flow recovers the data distribution at the terminal time. Theorem 3.4 (Optimal Flow Matching reaches the data manifold). Let ℳdata:=supp(p0)M_data:=supp(p_0). Under linear interpolation and standard regularity assumptions ensuring that v⋆v generates a unique flow map and that the associated continuity equation admits a unique weak solution, then an optimal Flow Matching vector field v⋆v transports the prior p1p_1 exactly to the data distribution p0p_0: (Φ1→0v⋆)#p1=p0.( ^v _1→ 0)_\#p_1=p_0\,. Consequently, supp((Φ1→0v⋆)#p1)=supp(p0)=ℳdata.supp\! (( ^v _1→ 0)_\#p_1 )=supp(p_0)=M_data\,. See App. C.1 for the proof, and Fig. 3 for the empirical toy example with setup details in App. E.1. On the failure of FlowDPO. In contrast to the ideal FM benchmark, Thm. 3.5 gives a sufficient condition under which a preference update leaves the pretrained terminal manifold. Theorem 3.5 (Manifold drift under a nonzero normal component assumption). Let ℳ0:=supp((Φ1→0ref)#p1)M_0:=supp\! (( ^ref_1→ 0)_\#p_1 ) be the pretrained terminal manifold, assume ℳ0⊂ℝdM_0 ^d is a twice continuously differentiable embedded submanifold, and fix 1∈ℳ1x_1 _1. Define F(θ,1):=Φ1→0θ(1),0⋆:=F(θ0,1)∈ℳ0,F(θ,x_1):= ^θ_1→ 0(x_1), _0 :=F( _0,x_1) _0\,, where θ0=θref _0= _ref and F(θ,1)F(θ,x_1) is differentiable in θ at θ0 _0. Let ΠN0⋆ℳ0 _N_x_0 M_0 denote the orthogonal projection onto the normal space N0⋆ℳ0N_x_0 M_0 and ℒL be the loss function. Let θ1=θ0−α∇θℒ(θ0) _1= _0-α _θL( _0) be one gradient step. If ΠN0⋆ℳ0DθF(θ0,1)[∇θℒ(θ0)]≠0, _N_x_0 M_0D_θF( _0,x_1) [ _θL( _0) ]≠ 0\,, then there exists α0>0 _0>0 such that for all α∈(0,α0)α∈(0, _0), F(θ1,1)∉ℳ0F( _1,x_1) _0. See App. C.2 for the proof. The result is loss-agnostic: it does not assert that every FlowDPO update drifts, but identifies a nonzero normal component as sufficient. Fig. 3 shows this behavior in our controlled toy instance. Remark 3.6 (Why is FlowDPO prone to manifold drift?). At its optimum, FM regression [‖vθ(t,t)−(1−0)‖2]E[\|v_θ(x_t,t)-(x_1-x_0)\|^2] preserves the target manifold under the assumptions of Thm. 3.4. The RFT term [‖vθ(tw,t)−(1−0w)‖2]E[\|v_θ(x^w_t,t)-(x_1-x_0^w)\|^2] preserves the preferred region in the target manifold. FlowDPO can be simplied as [‖vθ(tw,t)−(1−0w)‖2]−[‖vθ(tl,t)−(1−0l)‖2]E[\|v_θ(x^w_t,t)-(x_1-x_0^w)\|^2]-E[\|v_θ(x^l_t,t)-(x_1-x_0^l)\|^2], where the substraction of the loser error gives a force to drift away from the manifold. Figure 3: Toy example of manifold drift under direct preference optimization. Starting from the same pretrained flow matching (FM) reference model, FlowDPO drives terminal samples toward preferred regions but also causes a deviation from the pretrained data manifold. In contrast, ThermoDPO variant preserves the overall manifold structure much better while still improving alignment with the preference signal. 4 ThermoDPO: Preference Optimization with Terminal Manifold Control The possibility of FlowDPO leaving the terminal manifold (Sec. 3) raises a practical question: can we improve preference alignment while explicitly controlling terminal displacement? To resolve this tension, we introduce ThermoDPO, a method that explicitly bridges preference alignment and manifold preservation. Our approach is characterized by three key properties: a theoretical reduction to RFT (Sec. 4.2), an anchored-FlowDPO decomposition (Sec. 4.2), and a direct geometric bound on manifold drift (Sec. 4.3). 4.1 Temperature-Controlled Preference Optimization for Flow Models We formulate ThermoDPO by viewing alignment as a thermodynamic balancing act, where a time-dependent temperature function τ(t)τ(t) governs the trade-off between maximizing reward and anchoring mass to the pretrained manifold. By varying τ(t)τ(t), we can interpolate between the rigid constraints of rejection sampling (low temperature) and the flexible preference signal of FlowDPO (high temperature). This formulation is inspired by Boltzmann distributions over energy states [1], representing the competing goals of alignment and preservation. Following the FlowDPO notations from Sec. 2, we define three energy-like components that represent the preferred, rejected, and reference states: Ew E_w =−Δθwτ(t),El=−Δθlτ(t),Eb=ℓrefwτ(t). =- _θ^wτ(t)\,, E_l=- _θ^lτ(t)\,, E_b= _ref^wτ(t)\,. (4) The ThermoDPO objective then minimizes the negative log-probability of the preferred sample within this three-state system, effectively anchoring preference optimization: ℒThermoDPO(θ)=[−τ(t)⋅t2⋅logeEweEw+eEl+eEb].L_ThermoDPO(θ)=E [-τ(t)· t^2· e^E_we^E_w+e^E_l+e^E_b ]\,. (5) For our theoretical analysis, we use this standard formulation. In practice, as the t2t^2 factor weakens the manifold anchor near the terminal endpoint (t=0t=0), we propose and evaluate a reweighted variant, ThermoDPO-weighted, as detailed in Sec. 4.4. 4.2 Theoretical Relationship to Rejection Sampling Fine-Tuning and FlowDPO For the brevity of theoretical analysis, we rewrite the loss (in equation 5) in terms of a single-sample integrand as follows: ℒThermoDPO(θ)=[gτ(θ)],gτ(θ):=t2⋅τ⋅log(1+exp(Δθw−Δθlτ)+exp(ℓθwτ)).L_ThermoDPO(θ)=E [g_τ(θ) ]\,, g_τ(θ):=t^2·τ· \! (1+ \! ( _θ^w- _θ^lτ )+ \! ( _θ^wτ ) )\,. (6) To analyze these properties pointwise, we fix a tuple (0w,0l,t,1)(x_0^w,x_0^l,t,x_1) with t∈(0,1]t∈(0,1], let τ:=τ(t)τ:=τ(t), and recall ℓθw:=‖vθ(tw,t)−(1−0w)‖2 _θ^w:=\|v_θ(x_t^w,t)-(x_1-x_0^w)\|^2. We first demonstrate that ThermoDPO recovers rejection sampling fine-tuning (RFT) [65, 5] as the temperature vanishes. Theorem 4.1 (ThermoDPO reduces to RFT). For the integrand in equation 6, limτ↓0gτ(θ)=t2⋅max0,Δθw−Δθl,ℓθw. _τ 0g_τ(θ)=t^2· \! \0\,, _θ^w- _θ^l,\, _θ^w \\,. (7) Furthermore, if Δθw−Δθl≤ℓθw _θ^w- _θ^l≤ _θ^w, the objective reduces to the weighted reconstruction error: limτ↓0gτ(θ)=‖~0w−0w‖2=t2ℓθw, _τ 0g_τ(θ)=\| x_0^w-x_0^w\|^2=t^2 _θ^w\,, where ~0w:=tw−t⋅vθ(tw,t) x_0^w:=x_t^w-t· v_θ(x_t^w,t) is the reconstructed preferred sample. See App. C.3 for the proof. In the low-temperature regime, ThermoDPO effectively collapses to a time-weighted reconstruction objective whenever the preference signal is dominated by the manifold constraint. Beyond this limit, we can analytically relate ThermoDPO to the FlowDPO objective. Theorem 4.2 (ThermoDPO as anchored FlowDPO). For every τ>0τ>0, the integrand gτ(θ)g_τ(θ) decomposes into a temperature-scaled FlowDPO objective and a nonnegative anchoring term: gτ(θ)=t2⋅τ⋅log(1+exp(Δθw−Δθlτ))+rτ(θ),g_τ(θ)=t^2·τ· \! (1+ \! ( _θ^w- _θ^lτ ) )+r_τ(θ)\,, (8) where the anchoring term rτ(θ)≥0r_τ(θ)≥ 0 is defined as: rτ(θ):=t2⋅τ⋅log(1+exp(Δθw−Δθlτ)+exp(ℓθwτ)1+exp(Δθw−Δθlτ)).r_τ(θ):=t^2·τ· \! ( 1+ \! ( _θ^w- _θ^lτ )+ \! ( _θ^wτ )1+ \! ( _θ^w- _θ^lτ ) )\,. (9) The proof defers to App. C.4. Thm. 4.2 shows algebraically that ThermoDPO retains the pairwise FlowDPO term and adds the nonnegative winner-side penalty rτ(θ)r_τ(θ). 4.3 ThermoDPO Introduces Geometric Suppression of Manifold Drift Beyond functional decomposition, ThermoDPO provides direct geometric control over the terminal manifold departure by bounding the winner-side deviation of the reconstructed preferred sample. This theoretical guarantee, formalized in Thm. 4.3, establishes the mathematical foundation for the anchored mass-redirection behavior (illustrated by the red line in Fig. 2). Specifically, under exact pretraining where ℳ0=ℳdataM_0=M_data, this bound ensures that aligned mass remains anchored to the generative support even as the preference signal redirects it. Theorem 4.3 (Manifold drift control of ThermoDPO). Let ℳdata:=supp(p0)M_data:=supp(p_0). For the integrand in equation 6, gτ(θ)≥dist(~0w,ℳdata)2.g_τ(θ) \! ( x_0^w,M_data )^2\,. (10) where ~0w=tw−t⋅vθ(tw,t) x_0^w=x_t^w-t· v_θ(x_t^w,t) and dist(~0w,ℳdata)=infy∈ℳdata‖~0w−y‖dist( x_0^w,M_data)= _y _data\| x_0^w-y\|. See App. C.5 for the proof. Under exact FM pretraining, the same pointwise bound is relative to the pretrained terminal manifold ℳ0M_0. 4.4 From Theory to Practice: The Reweighted Variant of ThermoDPO While the theoretical objective equation 5 provides strong guarantees, its global t2t^2 coefficient causes the manifold anchor to vanish precisely near the terminal endpoint (t=0t=0), where geometric preservation is most critical. To resolve this weighting deficiency, we introduce ThermoDPO-weighted, which removes the global t2t^2 factor and instead activates the manifold anchor dynamically through a (1−t)2(1-t)^2 term: ℒThermoDPO-weighted (θ)=[τ(t)⋅log(1+exp(Δθw−Δθlτ(t))+exp((1−t)2⋅ℓθwτ(t)))].L_ThermoDPO-weighted (θ)=E [τ(t)· \! (1+ \! ( _θ^w- _θ^lτ(t) )+ \! ( (1-t)^2· _θ^wτ(t) ) ) ]\,. (11) We evaluate ThermoDPO-weighted as the definitive practical realization of the core objective across all experiments. By substituting the vanishing t2t^2 weight with an endpoint-focused activation, this variant maintains a robust manifold anchor while inheriting all analytical guarantees of the core ThermoDPO objective (see App. D for detailed discussion). 5 Experiments We evaluate ThermoDPO-weighted on both synthetic and real-world image benchmarks. Our synthetic experiments validate the core intuition (Fig. 2) and analyze the trade-offs between preference alignment and manifold preservation. On real-world tasks, we assess the performance of ThermoDPO-weighted against RFT and FlowDPO variants using comprehensive automated and human metrics. 5.1 Toy Experiments Table 2: Toy results comparing RFT, FlowDPO variants, Diffusion-SDPO, Linear-DPO, χ , and ThermoDPO-weighted. All methods start from the same pretrained flow-matching reference model and are fine-tuned for 10K steps. Win and Loss measure occupancy of the preferred and dispreferred regions regardless of manifold validity; StrictWin requires samples to be both preferred and on-manifold; OnManifold measures geometric validity; WinQuality is the fraction of preferred samples that remain on-manifold; and StrictScore:=0.5⋅StrictWin+0.5⋅OnManifoldStrictScore:=0.5·StrictWin+0.5·OnManifold summarizes the alignment-preservation trade-off. Best results are highlighted in bold; second-best results are underlined. Method Win (%) ↑ Loss (%) ↓ StrictWin (%) ↑ OnManifold (%) ↑ WinQuality ↑ StrictScore ↑ RFT 93.6 0.3 83.4 88.3 0.891 0.858 FlowDPO (β=1β=1) 92 0.8 0 0 0 0 FlowDPO (β=10β=10) 76.7 2.7 3.2 3.2 0.042 0.033 FlowDPO (β=100β=100) 43.4 17.5 37.7 88.2 0.868 0.629 FlowDPO (β=500β=500) 41.8 18.2 35.6 88.3 0.852 0.620 FlowDPO (β=1β=1) + RFT 91.7 0.3 82.9 88.5 0.903 0.857 FlowDPO (β=10β=10) + RFT 87.1 0.9 77.7 85.6 0.893 0.817 FlowDPO (β=100β=100) + RFT 53.9 11.7 47.6 87.5 0.884 0.676 FlowDPO (β=500β=500) + RFT 47.9 14.5 41.5 87.9 0.866 0.647 FlowDPO (β=1β=1) + KL 51.7 11.7 45.7 87.4 0.885 0.666 FlowDPO (β=10β=10) + KL 43.8 18 37.8 84.3 0.864 0.611 FlowDPO (β=100β=100) + KL 41.9 18.6 36.4 89.1 0.868 0.627 FlowDPO (β=500β=500) + KL 40.7 19.2 34.7 88.4 0.854 0.616 Diffusion-SDPO (β=1β=1, μ=0.99μ=0.99) 66.1 5.5 21.5 21.6 0.325 0.215 Diffusion-SDPO (β=10β=10, μ=0.99μ=0.99) 47.8 13.4 30.7 53.6 0.642 0.421 Diffusion-SDPO (β=100β=100, μ=0.99μ=0.99) 42.2 17.5 37.5 91.3 0.888 0.644 Diffusion-SDPO (β=500β=500, μ=0.99μ=0.99) 40.9 18.2 36.3 91.3 0.887 0.638 Linear-DPO (β=1β=1) 78.7 0.2 26.9 41.4 0.341 0.341 Linear-DPO (β=10β=10) 85.8 0.5 74.3 78.0 0.866 0.761 Linear-DPO (β=100β=100) 89.3 0.7 56.9 56.9 0.638 0.569 Linear-DPO (β=500β=500) 89.6 0.8 44.6 44.6 0.498 0.446 χ (β=1β=1) 92.7 1 0 0 0 0 χ (β=10β=10) 80.3 3.3 0.8 0.8 0.01 0.008 χ (β=100β=100) 43 17.8 37.2 88.4 0.865 0.628 χ (β=500β=500) 41.1 17.5 35 88.2 0.851 0.616 ThermoDPO-weighted with τ(t)=tβτ(t)= tβ ThermoDPO-weighted (t, β=1β=1) 92.7 0.5 87.6 92.2 0.945 0.899 ThermoDPO-weighted (t, β=10β=10) 92.0 0.4 86.1 91.5 0.935 0.888 ThermoDPO-weighted (t, β=100β=100) 91.2 0.4 85.9 92.1 0.941 0.89 ThermoDPO-weighted (t, β=500β=500) 91.9 0.4 86.2 92.2 0.939 0.892 Experimental setup. We use the analytic surface z=f(x,y)z=f(x,y) in ℝ3R^3 shown in Fig. 3: the two bumps near x=±3x=± 3 are preferred, the central dip near x=0x=0 is dispreferred, and the remaining surface is neutral. All methods start from the same three-layer flow-matching MLP, use the same winner–loser pairs and 10,00010,000-step fine-tuning budget, and are evaluated on 10,00010,000 generated samples. A point is on-manifold when it lies in the surface domain and satisfies |z−f(x,y)|≤0.15|z-f(x,y)|≤ 0.15. We compare RFT [65, 5], FlowDPO [39], χ [25], FlowDPO+KL, FlowDPO+RFT, Diffusion-SDPO [15], Linear-DPO [34], and ThermoDPO-weighted; full architecture and optimizer details are in App. E.1. Results. Tab. 2 shows a sharp trade-off between preference optimization and manifold preservation. • Vanilla FlowDPO and χ fails to preserve terminal manifold: Vanilla FlowDPO and χ can achieve high Winner Ratio, but often does so by leaving the manifold: for example, at β=1β=1 it reaches 92% Win while OnManifold drops to 0%, causing StrictWin and WinQuality to collapse. This is exactly the failure mode we call manifold drift. • Adding explicit regularization term helps to preserve terminal manifold, while ThermoDPO-weighted performs best: FlowDPO+RFT and ThermoDPO-weighted both preserve high OnManifold scores while recovering strong preference performance. RFT is a strong baseline, but among pairwise preference objectives ThermoDPO-weighted achieves the best balance: with τ(t)=tτ(t)=t, it attains 92.7% Win, 87.6% StrictWin, and the best StrictScore of 0.899. KL regularization preserves the manifold more than vanilla FlowDPO, but improves preference less. Table 3: Temperature ablation at β=1β=1. The full sweep is in Tab. 5. βτ(t)βτ(t) Win ↑ OnM. ↑ Strict ↑ t 92.7 92.2 0.899 t2t2+(1−t)2 t^2t^2+(1-t)^2 92.5 91.9 0.895 t10t^10 91.8 92.2 0.893 t0.1t^0.1 93.1 92.2 0.900 Sensitivity analysis. Across the four schedules in Tab. 3, StrictScore ranges from 0.8930.893 to 0.9000.900 at β=1β=1. For the linear schedule in Tab. 2, the score ranges from 0.8880.888 to 0.8990.899 over β∈1,10,100,500β∈\1,10,100,500\. These results support stability only within this toy grid; the complete sweep, including the more sensitive unweighted objective, appears in App. E.2.1. 5.2 Real-Image Generation Experiments In this section, we aim to test the practical consequence on real-image generation: can preference optimization improve reward without sacrificing prompt fidelity, perceptual quality, or agreement with human judgment? Experimental setup. All real-image runs start from the Stable Diffusion 3.5-M checkpoint and use the same OCR preference-pair dataset. We evaluate the optimized OCR metric together with GenEval [17], HPSv3.0 [45], and UniReward [62]; full training and sampling details are in App. E.3. Reward-model evaluation. We will report automatic scores from the training reward and held-out evaluators. The key question is whether a method improves OCR while retaining gains on metrics it was not directly optimized for. Improvements restricted to the optimized reward are more suggestive of reward hacking. Table 4: Quantitative comparison on SD3.5-M. All compared methods are trained using the OCR preference pair dataset, while evaluation is conducted across GenEval, OCR, HPSv3.0, and UniRwd. For each metric, we report the absolute score at both CFG settings, and report the relative change (%) with respect to the SD3.5-M baseline at the CFG=4.5=4.5. The overall score is defined as the macro-average relative gain across these four metrics. Best results are highlighted in bold and the second-best results are underlined. Model CFG GenEval [17] ↑ OCR ↑ HPSv3.0 [45] ↑ UniRwd [62] ↑ Overall Gain ↑ SD3.5-M (Baseline) 2.02.0 0.53 0.36 5.38 2.78 – 4.54.5 0.63 0.59 8.68 3.03 – RFT [65, 5] 2.02.0 0.68 (+7.9%) 0.67 (+13.6%) 8.98 (+3.5%) 3.11 (+2.6%) +6.9% 4.54.5 0.70 (+11.1%) 0.74 (+25.4%) 9.59 (+10.5%) 3.19 (+5.3%) +13.1% FlowDPO [39] (β=100β=100) 2.02.0 0.49 (-22.2%) 0.93 (+57.6%) 7.18 (-17.3%) 2.97 (-2.0%) +4.0% 4.54.5 0.46 (-27.0%) 0.70 (+18.6%) 6.83 (-21.3%) 2.89 (-4.6%) -8.6% FlowDPO + RFT (β=100β=100) 2.02.0 0.58 (-7.9%) 0.92 (+55.9%) 7.68 (-11.5%) 3.05 (+0.7%) +9.3% 4.54.5 0.64 (+1.6%) 0.88 (+49.2%) 8.85 (+2.0%) 3.10 (+2.3%) +13.8% FlowDPO + KL (β=100β=100) 2.02.0 0.56 (-11.1%) 0.92 (+55.9%) 6.58 (-24.2%) 2.99 (-1.3%) +4.8% 4.54.5 0.62 (-1.6%) 0.92 (+55.9%) 8.58 (-1.2%) 3.09 (+2.0%) +13.8% ThermoDPO-weighted (t, β=100β=100) 2.02.0 0.59 (-6.3%) 0.84 (+42.4%) 7.29 (-16.0%) 2.99 (-1.3%) +4.7% 4.54.5 0.65 (+3.2%) 0.87 (+47.5%) 9.46 (+9.0%) 3.16 (+4.3%) +16.0% Quantitavely, we report experimental results in Tab. 4, and ThermoDPO-weighted achieves the strongest overall gain within the FlowDPO family and improves Geneval, OCR, HPSv3.0, and UniReward over the pretrained baseline. RFT remains a strong baseline on several held-out metrics. Qualitatively, we report the generated images of all the compared methods in App. E.4. The qualitative results show that ThermoDPO-weighted and RFT retain visual quality closer to the pretrained model, whereas FlowDPO, FlowDPO+RFT, and FlowDPO+KL exhibit noticeable quality degradation. Together, these results support our claim that ThermoDPO-weighted improves target metrics without visible quality degradation. Human evaluation. Reward models cannot fully determine whether improved scores correspond to genuinely better images, so we also run pairwise human evaluation on 30 prompts following App. E.3.2. ThermoDPO-weighted remains competitive on text accuracy and is generally preferred on visual quality. The result of human evaluation is shown in Fig. 4. Figure 4: Pairwise human evaluation of ThermoDPO-weighted against different baselines on text accuracy and visual quality over 30 prompts. Each stacked bar reports the percentage of prompts for which ThermoDPO-weighted is preferred, tied, or dispreferred relative to the corresponding baseline. ThermoDPO-weighted shows consistently stronger performance on visual quality while remaining competitive on text accuracy. 6 Limitations This paper studies flow-based preference optimization in the offline setting. All methods are trained from a fixed winner–loser dataset, so we do not address the additional exploration, reward-updating, and stability issues that appear in online RLHF. We also do not test whether the same idea transfers cleanly to other continuous-time or diffusion-based alignment algorithms. In addition, although ThermoDPO is motivated by thermodynamic energy functions and Boltzmann distributions, our analysis only establishes its optimization and manifold-control properties rather than a fully principled physical derivation; a better physically grounded objective may therefore exist. Besides, extending manifold-drift control to online RL algorithms for flow preference optimization is a natural next step. 7 Conclusion This paper studies preference optimization for continuous-time generative models through the lens of manifold drift. We argue that, in flow-based models, preference optimization does not only change which outputs are favored, it also changes the transport dynamics that produce them. This creates a failure mode in which reward-based metrics improve while terminal samples move away from regions supported by the pretrained model. To make this issue explicit, we formalize manifold drift, show that optimal Flow Matching recovers the terminal data distribution, and give a first-order result showing that FlowDPO can admit off-manifold updates. Motivated by this analysis, we introduce ThermoDPO, a temperature-controlled objective that adds a winner-side anchor to pairwise preference optimization. Our theory shows that the ThermoDPO objective reduces to RFT in the low-temperature regime under a mild condition, decomposes into a temperature-scaled FlowDPO term plus a nonnegative anchoring term, and upper bounds a reconstruction-based manifold-distance surrogate on preferred samples. Because the ThermoDPO objective weakens the anchor near the terminal endpoint in practice, we evaluate a reweighted implementation, ThermoDPO-weighted, in all experiments. Empirically, the toy experiment shows a clear trade-off between preference optimization and manifold preservation, and demonstrates that ThermoDPO-weighted achieves a substantially better balance than vanilla FlowDPO and its regularized variants. On real-image generation, ThermoDPO-weighted improves OCR-oriented alignment while remaining competitive on held-out automatic metrics and human evaluation. 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Contents 1 Introduction 2 Preliminaries 2.1 Flow Matching 2.2 Direct Preference Optimization (DPO) in Continuous-Time Models 3 Manifold Drift in Continuous Preference Optimization 4 ThermoDPO: Preference Optimization with Terminal Manifold Control 4.1 Temperature-Controlled Preference Optimization for Flow Models 4.2 Theoretical Relationship to Rejection Sampling Fine-Tuning and FlowDPO 4.3 ThermoDPO Introduces Geometric Suppression of Manifold Drift 4.4 From Theory to Practice: The Reweighted Variant of ThermoDPO 5 Experiments 5.1 Toy Experiments 5.2 Real-Image Generation Experiments 6 Limitations 7 Conclusion References A Broader Impacts B Related Work C Theoretical Results and Proof C.1 Proof of Theorem C.2 Proof of Theorem C.3 Proof of Theorem C.4 Proof of Theorem C.5 Proof of Theorem C.6 Extension of Theorem to the ODE Endpoint D Additional Analysis of ThermoDPO-weighted E Experiments Details E.1 Toy Experiment Setup Details E.2 Additional Toy Experiments Results E.2.1 Toy Results of ThermoDPO Variants E.2.2 Additional Results of RFT E.2.3 Toy Results of Manifolds with Different Curvatures E.3 Real-Image Experimental Protocol on SD3.5-M E.3.1 Automatic Reward-Model Evaluation E.3.2 Human Evaluation Protocol E.4 Qualitative Results of Real-Image Experiments on SD3.5-M [11] E.5 Prompts of Fig. E.6 Real-Image Experimental Results on FLUX.2-klein-base-4B [27] E.6.1 Experimental Results Appendix A Broader Impacts This work studies how to reduce reward hacking in preference optimization for continuous generative models, which could have positive impact by making aligned image generators more reliable and by encouraging evaluation beyond a single optimized reward. In particular, methods that better preserve the pretrained data manifold may reduce some forms of quality degradation. At the same time, improving preference optimization for image generation can also strengthen systems that may be misused to produce deceptive or harmful synthetic media. Better alignment to OCR-oriented or human-preference rewards does not by itself guarantee fairness, safety, or robustness to adversarial prompts, and it could be used to improve misuse-oriented generation quality as well as benign applications. For this reason, we view the method as a technical contribution for controlled offline research settings rather than a claim that preference-tuned image generators are safe for unrestricted deployment. Appendix B Related Work Continuous-Time Generative Modeling. Diffusion and score models learn iterative stochastic denoising [54, 23, 55], whereas Flow Matching (FM) and related transport formulations regress continuous velocity fields [37, 2, 6, 57]. Stochastic interpolants unify deterministic flows and diffusions, SiT scales this view, and Rectified Flow emphasizes straighter, efficient paths [3, 44, 41, 11]. We study not a new transport model, but whether preference updates preserve its pretrained terminal support. Offline Preference Optimization. Offline methods learn from fixed preference data rather than collecting rewards during training. DPO provides the canonical alternative to RLHF [51, 47], while DiffusionDPO and FlowDPO replace likelihood ratios with denoising- or flow-matching-error surrogates [60, 39]. Diffusion-KTO, MaPO, SPO, and latent preference optimization relax requirements on paired labels, reference models, or uniform timestep supervision [35, 24, 36, 70]; DSPO, SmPO-Diffusion, and Linear-DPO instead address score mismatch, heterogeneous preferences, or utility saturation [72, 42, 34]. VideoDPO extends sequence-level preference learning to clips, whereas DenseDPO introduces temporally aligned segment-level pairs [40, 64]. These methods improve offline objectives or supervision granularity, but do not directly characterize terminal-support preservation after the update. Reward Models and Reward-Based Fine-Tuning. Reward-based methods first construct a scalar feedback signal and then optimize against it. VideoScore and VisionReward learn fine-grained, multidimensional video rewards [21, 66]; LiFT incorporates rationale-annotated human feedback, while AI feedback can target dynamic object interactions [61, 16]. Given such feedback, reward-weighted or reward-ranked fine-tuning and policy gradients optimize generated samples directly [28, 10, 4, 12]. DRaFT, AlignProp, and ShortFT instead backpropagate differentiable rewards through full, truncated, or shortened sampling chains [7, 49, 18]; T2V-Turbo variants inject rewards into consistency distillation [31, 32], while VADER and Diffusion-DRF propagate dense video-reward feedback [50, 63]. This line focuses on reward construction and credit propagation rather than fixed-pair preference objectives. Online and Inference-Time Alignment. Online alignment refreshes preferences, rewards, or samples during optimization. Dual-IPO alternates reward-model and generator updates, whereas OnlineVPO constructs video-centric preferences online [68, 69]. Divergence objectives modify the alignment geometry [30], and Adjoint Matching, Flow-GRPO, TempFlow-GRPO, MixGRPO, DanceGRPO, and DiffusionNFT provide online updates for diffusion or flow models [9, 38, 20, 33, 67, 71]. DGPO learns from group preferences with deterministic ODE sampling, while VGPO addresses temporal credit and vanishing group-relative rewards [43, 53]. In contrast, Direct Noise Optimization, diffusion latent beam search, and EvoSearch steer trajectories at inference time without parameter updates [59, 46, 19]. Flow-Factory supplies modular infrastructure for these training regimes [48]. Both online adaptation and inference-time search are orthogonal to our fixed-dataset support-preservation question. Manifold Preservation and Stabilization. Stabilization mechanisms address fine-tuning drift more directly. Reference regularization and timestep-aware training constrain deviations, while Diffusion-SDPO protects preferred reconstruction [26, 15]. Complementary evidence from LLM post-training suggests that a sufficiently trained SFT foundation can improve subsequent RL, whereas severe SFT overfitting reduces optimization plasticity [8]. MPGD instead imposes an autoencoder manifold during training-free guidance [22]. Motivated by the manifold hypothesis [14, 29] and geometry-adaptive diffusion smoothing [13], ThermoDPO anchors the winner in an offline flow-preference objective and provides a pointwise, rather than distribution-level, guarantee. Appendix C Theoretical Results and Proof C.1 Proof of Theorem 3.4 Proof. Let ℳdata:=supp(p0)M_data:=supp(p_0). Fix a coupling γ of p0p_0 and p1p_1, which is the joint law used to sample (0,1)(x_0,x_1) in the Flow Matching objective. For the linear interpolation ψt(0,1)=(1−t)⋅0+t⋅1, _t(x_0,x_1)=(1-t)·x_0+t·x_1, the path velocity is ∂tψt(0,1)=1−0. _t _t(x_0,x_1)=x_1-x_0. Define Xt:=ψt(0,1),Ut:=1−0,(0,1)∼γ.X_t:= _t(x_0,x_1), U_t:=x_1-x_0, (x_0,x_1) γ. Then the Flow Matching objective can be written as ℒFM(v)=∫01[‖v(Xt,t)−Ut‖2]t.L_FM(v)= _0^1E\! [\|v(X_t,t)-U_t\|^2 ]dt. By the standard L2L^2 projection argument, any global minimizer v⋆v satisfies v⋆(x,t)=[Ut∣Xt=x],ρt-a.e. x,v (x,t)=E[U_t X_t=x], _t-a.e. x, that is, v⋆(,t)=[1−0∣(1−t)⋅0+t⋅1=].v (x,t)=E[x_1-x_0 (1-t)·x_0+t·x_1=x]. This is exactly the conditional mean velocity field of the interpolating family, where ρt _t denotes the law of XtX_t. Since XtX_t is generated by the linear interpolation, the family ρtt∈[0,1]\ _t\_t∈[0,1] satisfies the continuity equation ∂tρt+∇⋅(ρtvt⋆)=0 _t _t+∇·( _tv _t)=0 in the weak sense, where vt⋆(⋅):=v⋆(⋅,t)v _t(·):=v (·,t). This equality is proved in the following. For any smooth compactly supported test function φ , dt[φ(Xt)]=[∇φ(Xt)⋅∂tXt]=[∇φ(Xt)⋅Ut]. ddtE[ (X_t)]=E[∇ (X_t)· _tX_t]=E[∇ (X_t)· U_t]. Using conditional expectation with respect to XtX_t, [∇φ(Xt)⋅Ut]=[∇φ(Xt)⋅[Ut∣Xt]]=[∇φ(Xt)⋅v⋆(Xt,t)].E[∇ (X_t)· U_t]=E\! [∇ (X_t)·E[U_t X_t] ]=E[∇ (X_t)· v (X_t,t)]. Hence dt∫ℝdφ(x)ρt(x)=∫ℝd∇φ(x)⋅v⋆(x,t)ρt(x), ddt _R^d (x)\, _t(dx)= _R^d∇ (x)· v (x,t)\, _t(dx), which is the weak form of ∂tρt+∇⋅(ρtvt⋆)=0. _t _t+∇·( _tv _t)=0. On the other hand, if we let μt:=(Φ1→tv⋆)#p1, _t:=( ^v _1→ t)_\#p_1, then the curve μtt∈[0,1]\ _t\_t∈[0,1] also satisfies ∂tμt+∇⋅(μtvt⋆)=0 _t _t+∇·( _tv _t)=0 with initial condition μ1=p1. _1=p_1. But from the definition of the interpolation, ρ1=(ψ1)#γ=(x1)#γ=p1. _1=( _1)_\#γ=(x_1)_\#γ=p_1. Therefore both ρt\ _t\ and μt\ _t\ solve the same continuity equation with the same initial condition at t=1t=1. By uniqueness of weak solutions to this continuity equation under the stated regularity assumptions, the transported marginal must coincide with the interpolation marginal: μt=ρt,∀t∈[0,1]. _t= _t, ∀ t∈[0,1]. That is, (Φ1→tv⋆)#p1=ρt.( ^v _1→ t)_\#p_1= _t. Evaluating at t=0t=0 gives (Φ1→0v⋆)#p1=ρ0.( ^v _1→ 0)_\#p_1= _0. Since ρ0=(ψ0)#γ=(x0)#γ=p0, _0=( _0)_\#γ=(x_0)_\#γ=p_0, we conclude (Φ1→0v⋆)#p1=p0.( ^v _1→ 0)_\#p_1=p_0. Therefore, supp((Φ1→0v⋆)#p1)=supp(p0)=ℳdata.supp\! (( ^v _1→ 0)_\#p_1 )=supp(p_0)=M_data. ∎ C.2 Proof of Theorem 3.5 Lemma C.1 (On-manifold displacement has only second-order normal component). Let ℳ⊂ℝdM ^d be a C2C^2 embedded submanifold, and let x∈ℳx . Then there exist a neighborhood U of x and a constant C>0C>0 such that for every y∈ℳ∩Uy ∩ U, ‖ΠNxℳ(y−x)‖≤C‖y−x‖2. \| _N_xM(y-x) \|≤ C\|y-x\|^2. Equivalently, ‖ΠNxℳ(y−x)‖=O(‖y−x‖2)as y→x,y∈ℳ. \| _N_xM(y-x) \|=O(\|y-x\|^2) y→ x,\ y . Proof. Since ℳM is a C2C^2 embedded submanifold, after a translation and an orthogonal change of coordinates, we may assume x=0,Txℳ=ℝm×0⊂ℝm×ℝd−m.x=0, T_xM=R^m×\0\ ^m×R^d-m. Then, in a neighborhood of x, the manifold can be written as the graph ℳ∩U=(u,g(u)):u∈V,M∩ U=\(u,g(u)):u∈ V\, where g:V⊂ℝm→ℝd−mg:V ^m ^d-m is C2C^2 and satisfies g(0)=0,Dg(0)=0.g(0)=0, Dg(0)=0. Hence, by Taylor’s theorem, ‖g(u)‖≤C‖u‖2\|g(u)\|≤ C\|u\|^2 for all u sufficiently close to 00. Now let y=(u,g(u))∈ℳ∩Uy=(u,g(u)) ∩ U. Since Nxℳ=0×ℝd−mN_xM=\0\×R^d-m in these coordinates, we have ΠNxℳ(y−x)=ΠNxℳ(u,g(u))=(0,g(u)), _N_xM(y-x)= _N_xM(u,g(u))=(0,g(u)), and therefore ‖ΠNxℳ(y−x)‖=‖g(u)‖≤C‖u‖2. \| _N_xM(y-x) \|=\|g(u)\|≤ C\|u\|^2. Since ‖y−x‖=‖(u,g(u))‖≥‖u‖,\|y-x\|=\|(u,g(u))\|≥\|u\|, it follows that ‖ΠNxℳ(y−x)‖≤C‖y−x‖2. \| _N_xM(y-x) \|≤ C\|y-x\|^2. This proves the claim. ∎ In the following, we prove the Thm. 3.5. Proof. Let g:=∇θℒ(θ0),θ1=θ0−αg,x0⋆:=F(θ0,1)∈ℳ0.g:= _θL( _0), _1= _0-α g, x_0 :=F( _0,x_1) _0. Since F(θ,1)F(θ,x_1) is differentiable with respect to θ at θ0 _0, F(θ1,1)−x0⋆=−αDθF(θ0,1)[g]+o(α).F( _1,x_1)-x_0 =-α\,D_θF( _0,x_1)[g]+o(α). Projecting onto the normal space Nx0⋆ℳ0N_x_0 M_0 yields ΠNx0⋆ℳ0(F(θ1,1)−x0⋆)=−αΠNx0⋆ℳ0DθF(θ0,1)[g]+o(α). _N_x_0 M_0 (F( _1,x_1)-x_0 )=-α\, _N_x_0 M_0D_θF( _0,x_1)[g]+o(α). By assumption, ΠNx0⋆ℳ0DθF(θ0,1)[g]≠0, _N_x_0 M_0D_θF( _0,x_1)[g]≠ 0, so there exists c>0c>0 such that for all sufficiently small α>0α>0, ‖ΠNx0⋆ℳ0(F(θ1,1)−x0⋆)‖≥cα. \| _N_x_0 M_0 (F( _1,x_1)-x_0 ) \|≥ cα. Suppose, for contradiction, that there exists a sequence αn↓0 _n 0 such that F(θ0−αng,1)∈ℳ0.F( _0- _ng,x_1) _0. Since F(θ0−αng,1)→x0⋆F( _0- _ng,x_1)→ x_0 , Lem. C.1 implies ‖ΠNx0⋆ℳ0(F(θ0−αng,1)−x0⋆)‖≤C‖F(θ0−αng,1)−x0⋆‖2. \| _N_x_0 M_0 (F( _0- _ng,x_1)-x_0 ) \|≤ C \|F( _0- _ng,x_1)-x_0 \|^2. But the differentiability of F also gives ‖F(θ0−αng,1)−x0⋆‖=O(αn), \|F( _0- _ng,x_1)-x_0 \|=O( _n), hence ‖ΠNx0⋆ℳ0(F(θ0−αng,1)−x0⋆)‖=O(αn2). \| _N_x_0 M_0 (F( _0- _ng,x_1)-x_0 ) \|=O( _n^2). This contradicts the lower bound ‖ΠNx0⋆ℳ0(F(θ0−αng,1)−x0⋆)‖≥cαn \| _N_x_0 M_0 (F( _0- _ng,x_1)-x_0 ) \|≥ c _n for all sufficiently large n. Therefore, there exists α0>0 _0>0 such that for all α∈(0,α0)α∈(0, _0), F(θ1,1)∉ℳ0.F( _1,x_1) _0. ∎ C.3 Proof of Theorem 4.1 Proof. Because limτ↓0τ⋅log(1+exp(aτ)+exp(bτ))=max0,a,b _τ 0τ· (1+ ( aτ)+ ( bτ) )= \0,a,b\ (12) , we have limτ↓0gτ(θ)=t2⋅max0,Δθw−Δθl,ℓθw. _τ 0g_τ(θ)=t^2· \! \0,\, _θ^w- _θ^l,\, _θ^w \. (13) If Δθw−Δθl≤ℓθw _θ^w- _θ^l≤ _θ^w, then limτ↓0gτ(θ) _τ 0g_τ(θ) =t2⋅ℓθw =t^2· _θ^w (14) =t2⋅‖vθ(tw,t)−(ϵ−0w)‖2 =t^2·\|v_θ(x_t^w,t)-(ε-x_0^w)\|^2 (15) =‖t⋅vθ(tw,t)−t⋅(ϵ−0w)‖2 =\|t· v_θ(x_t^w,t)-t·(ε-x_0^w)\|^2 (16) =‖((1−t)⋅0w+t⋅ϵ)−t⋅vθ(tw,t)−0w‖2 =\|((1-t)·x_0^w+t·ε)-t· v_θ(x_t^w,t)-x_0^w\|^2 (17) =‖tw−t⋅vθ(tw,t)−0w‖2 =\|x_t^w-t· v_θ(x_t^w,t)-x_0^w\|^2 (18) =‖~0w−0w‖2. =\| x_0^w-x_0^w\|^2. (19) ∎ C.4 Proof of Theorem 4.2 Proof. gτ(θ) g_τ(θ) =t2⋅τ⋅log(1+exp(Δθw−Δθlτ)+exp(ℓθwτ)) =t^2·τ· \! (1+ \! ( _θ^w- _θ^lτ )+ \! ( _θ^wτ ) ) (20) =t2⋅τ⋅log(1+exp(Δθw−Δθlτ)) =t^2·τ· \! (1+ \! ( _θ^w- _θ^lτ ) ) +t2⋅τ⋅log(1+exp(Δθw−Δθlτ)+exp(ℓθwτ)1+exp(Δθw−Δθlτ)). \ +t^2·τ· \! ( 1+ \! ( _θ^w- _θ^lτ )+ \! ( _θ^wτ )1+ \! ( _θ^w- _θ^lτ ) ). (21) ∎ C.5 Proof of Theorem 4.3 Proof. Let ℳdata:=supp(p0)M_data:=supp(p_0). Now, we prove the inequality: gτ(θ) g_τ(θ) =t2⋅τ⋅log(1+exp(Δθw−Δθlτ)+exp(ℓθwτ)) =t^2·τ· \! (1+ \! ( _θ^w- _θ^lτ )+ \! ( _θ^wτ ) ) ≥t2⋅τ⋅ℓθwτ ≥ t^2·τ· _θ^wτ =t2⋅ℓθw =t^2· _θ^w =t2⋅‖vθ(tw,t)−(ϵ−0w)‖2 =t^2·\|v_θ(x_t^w,t)-(ε-x_0^w)\|^2 =∥(tw−t⋅vθ(tw,t))−0w∥2(where tw=(1−t)⋅0w+t⋅ϵ) =\|(x_t^w-t· v_θ(x_t^w,t))-x_0^w\|^2 (where $ x_t^w=(1-t)·x_0^w+t·ε$) =‖~0w−0w‖2 =\| x_0^w-x_0^w\|^2 ≥(infy∈ℳdata‖~0w−y‖)2 ≥ ( _y _data\| x_0^w-y\| )^2 By the definition of dist(~0w,ℳdata)=infy∈ℳdata‖~0w−y‖dist( x_0^w,M_data)= _y _data\| x_0^w-y\|, we prove the inequality. ∎ C.6 Extension of Theorem 4.3 to the ODE Endpoint The one-step reconstruction in Thm. 4.3 approximates the endpoint obtained by integrating the learned velocity field. The following result transfers its manifold-distance guarantee to that endpoint. Theorem C.2 (ODE endpoint drift control). Fix the pointwise setting of Thm. 4.3, and write ℳdata:=supp(p0)M_data:=supp(p_0). Let sθ,ws∈[0,t]\x_s^θ,w\_s∈[0,t] solve dssθ,w=vθ(sθ,w,s),tθ,w=tw, ddsx_s^θ,w=v_θ(x_s^θ,w,s), _t^θ,w=x_t^w, and define Φt→0θ(tw):=0θ,w _t→ 0^θ(x_t^w):=x_0^θ,w. Suppose vθv_θ is continuously differentiable near this trajectory and, for all s∈[0,t]s∈[0,t], ‖Dvθ(sθ,w,s)‖op≤Lx,‖∂svθ(sθ,w,s)‖≤Lt,‖vθ(sθ,w,s)‖≤V. \|D_xv_θ(x_s^θ,w,s) \|_op≤ L_x, \| _sv_θ(x_s^θ,w,s) \|≤ L_t, \|v_θ(x_s^θ,w,s) \|≤ V. (22) Then dist(Φt→0θ(tw),ℳdata)≤gτ(θ)+Lt+LxV2t2.dist\! ( _t→ 0^θ(x_t^w),M_data )≤ g_τ(θ)+ L_t+L_xV2\,t^2. (23) Thus, the pointwise guarantee of Thm. 4.3 extends to the integrated ODE endpoint up to the O(t2)O(t^2) local error of a one-step Euler estimate. Proof. For brevity, write s:=sθ,wx_s:=x_s^θ,w and Mv:=Lt+LxVM_v:=L_t+L_xV. By the chain rule and equation 22, ‖dsvθ(s,s)‖=‖∂svθ(s,s)+Dvθ(s,s)vθ(s,s)‖≤Mv. \| ddsv_θ(x_s,s) \|= \| _sv_θ(x_s,s)+D_xv_θ(x_s,s)v_θ(x_s,s) \|≤ M_v. Let ~0w:=tw−tvθ(tw,t) x_0^w:=x_t^w-t\,v_θ(x_t^w,t). Since Φt→0θ(tw)=tw−∫0tvθ(s,s)s _t→ 0^θ(x_t^w)=x_t^w- _0^tv_θ(x_s,s)\,ds, ‖Φt→0θ(tw)−~0w‖ \| _t→ 0^θ(x_t^w)- x_0^w \| ≤∫0t‖vθ(t,t)−vθ(s,s)‖s ≤ _0^t \|v_θ(x_t,t)-v_θ(x_s,s) \|\,ds ≤∫0tMv(t−s)s=Mv2t2. ≤ _0^tM_v(t-s)\,ds= M_v2\,t^2. (24) Moreover, equation 10 gives dist(~0w,ℳdata)≤gτ(θ).dist\! ( x_0^w,M_data )≤ g_τ(θ). The distance to a nonempty set is 11-Lipschitz. Combining this fact with equation 24 yields dist(Φt→0θ(tw),ℳdata)≤‖Φt→0θ(tw)−~0w‖+dist(~0w,ℳdata),dist\! ( _t→ 0^θ(x_t^w),M_data )≤ \| _t→ 0^θ(x_t^w)- x_0^w \|+dist\! ( x_0^w,M_data ), which proves equation 23. ∎ Appendix D Additional Analysis of ThermoDPO-weighted In this section, we provide additional analysis of ThermoDPO-weighted: • Prop. D.1 parallels Thm. 4.1 by establishing the connections to RFT for ThermoDPO-weighted. • Prop. D.3 parallels Thm. 4.2 by giving the anchored-FlowDPO decomposition. • Prop. D.4 parallels Thm. 4.3 by providing winner-side manifold drift control. The ThermoDPO objective in the main text is chosen because it yields the cleanest winner-side manifold distance surrogate statement. Equivalently, the practical loss used in both toy and real-image experiments can be written as ℒThermoDPO-weighted(θ) _ThermoDPO-weighted(θ) =[gτwt(θ)], =E [g_τ^wt(θ) ], (25) gτwt(θ) g_τ^wt(θ) :=τ⋅log(1+exp(Δθw−Δθlτ)+exp((1−t)2ℓθwτ)), :=τ· \! (1+ \! ( _θ^w- _θ^lτ )+ \! ( (1-t)^2 _θ^wτ ) ), where, for the pointwise analysis below, we fix (0w,0l,t,ϵ)(x_0^w,x_0^l,t,ε) with t∈(0,1)t∈(0,1) and write τ:=τ(t)>0τ:=τ(t)>0. Relative to ThermoDPO, removing the global t2t^2 prefactor and replacing ℓθw _θ^w by (1−t)2ℓθw(1-t)^2 _θ^w shifts the winner-side anchor toward the terminal window t≈0t≈ 0. Proposition D.1 (Low-temperature limit of ThermoDPO-weighted). Fix (0w,0l,t,ϵ)(x_0^w,x_0^l,t,ε) with t∈(0,1)t∈(0,1). Then limτ↓0gτwt(θ)=max0,Δθw−Δθl,(1−t)2ℓθw. _τ 0g_τ^wt(θ)= \! \0,\, _θ^w- _θ^l,\,(1-t)^2 _θ^w \. (26) Moreover, if Δθw−Δθl≤(1−t)2ℓθw _θ^w- _θ^l≤(1-t)^2 _θ^w, then limτ↓0gτwt(θ)=(1−t)2ℓθw=(1−t)2t2‖~0w−0w‖2, _τ 0g_τ^wt(θ)=(1-t)^2 _θ^w= (1-t)^2t^2\| x_0^w-x_0^w\|^2, (27) where ~0w=tw−t⋅vθ(tw,t) x_0^w=x_t^w-t· v_θ(x_t^w,t). Proof. Because limτ↓0τ⋅log(1+exp(aτ)+exp(bτ))=max0,a,b, _τ 0τ· \! (1+ \! ( aτ )+ \! ( bτ ) )= \0,a,b\, (28) we obtain limτ↓0gτwt(θ)=max0,Δθw−Δθl,(1−t)2ℓθw. _τ 0g_τ^wt(θ)= \! \0,\, _θ^w- _θ^l,\,(1-t)^2 _θ^w \. (29) If Δθw−Δθl≤(1−t)2ℓθw _θ^w- _θ^l≤(1-t)^2 _θ^w, then limτ↓0gτwt(θ) _τ 0g_τ^wt(θ) =(1−t)2ℓθw =(1-t)^2 _θ^w (30) =(1−t)2t2⋅t2ℓθw = (1-t)^2t^2· t^2 _θ^w (31) =(1−t)2t2‖~0w−0w‖2, = (1-t)^2t^2\| x_0^w-x_0^w\|^2, (32) where the last identity follows from t2ℓθw=‖~0w−0w‖2t^2 _θ^w=\| x_0^w-x_0^w\|^2 as in the proof of Thm. 4.1. ∎ Remark D.2 (Interpretation). Compared with Thm. 4.1, the practical variant no longer reduces exactly to the terminal reconstruction error. Instead, it reduces to a reweighted winner-side anchor with factor (1−t)2/t2(1-t)^2/t^2, which is largest near the terminal endpoint t=0t=0. This is precisely the regime where the practical implementation is intended to strengthen terminal manifold preservation. Proposition D.3 (ThermoDPO-weighted as anchored FlowDPO). For every τ>0τ>0, the single-sample ThermoDPO-weighted integrand admits the decomposition gτwt(θ)=τ⋅log(1+exp(Δθw−Δθlτ))+rτwt(θ),g_τ^wt(θ)=τ· \! (1+ \! ( _θ^w- _θ^lτ ) )+r_τ^wt(θ), (33) where rτwt(θ):=τ⋅log(1+exp(Δθw−Δθlτ)+exp((1−t)2ℓθwτ)1+exp(Δθw−Δθlτ))≥0.r_τ^wt(θ):=τ· \! ( 1+ \! ( _θ^w- _θ^lτ )+ \! ( (1-t)^2 _θ^wτ )1+ \! ( _θ^w- _θ^lτ ) )≥ 0. (34) Therefore, ThermoDPO-weighted remains a strict upper envelope of the corresponding temperature-scaled FlowDPO objective, with the excess term acting as a reweighted winner-side anchoring penalty. Proof. gτwt(θ) g_τ^wt(θ) =τ⋅log(1+exp(Δθw−Δθlτ)+exp((1−t)2ℓθwτ)) =τ· \! (1+ \! ( _θ^w- _θ^lτ )+ \! ( (1-t)^2 _θ^wτ ) ) (35) =τ⋅log(1+exp(Δθw−Δθlτ)) =τ· \! (1+ \! ( _θ^w- _θ^lτ ) ) +τ⋅log(1+exp(Δθw−Δθlτ)+exp((1−t)2ℓθwτ)1+exp(Δθw−Δθlτ)). +τ· \! ( 1+ \! ( _θ^w- _θ^lτ )+ \! ( (1-t)^2 _θ^wτ )1+ \! ( _θ^w- _θ^lτ ) ). The numerator in the second logarithm is no smaller than the denominator, so rτwt(θ)≥0r_τ^wt(θ)≥ 0. ∎ Proposition D.4 (Winner-side manifold drift control of ThermoDPO-weighted). Let ℳdata:=supp(p0)M_data:=supp(p_0). For every (0w,0l,t,ϵ)(x_0^w,x_0^l,t,ε) with t∈(0,1)t∈(0,1) and τ>0τ>0, dist(~0w,ℳdata)2≤t2(1−t)2gτwt(θ),dist\! ( x_0^w,M_data )^2≤ t^2(1-t)^2\,g_τ^wt(θ), (36) where ~0w=tw−t⋅vθ(tw,t) x_0^w=x_t^w-t· v_θ(x_t^w,t). In particular, if t≤12t≤ 12, then dist(~0w,ℳdata)2≤gτwt(θ).dist\! ( x_0^w,M_data )^2≤ g_τ^wt(θ). (37) Proof. gτwt(θ) g_τ^wt(θ) =τ⋅log(1+exp(Δθw−Δθlτ)+exp((1−t)2ℓθwτ)) =τ· \! (1+ \! ( _θ^w- _θ^lτ )+ \! ( (1-t)^2 _θ^wτ ) ) (38) ≥τ⋅(1−t)2ℓθwτ ≥τ· (1-t)^2 _θ^wτ =(1−t)2ℓθw =(1-t)^2 _θ^w =(1−t)2t2‖~0w−0w‖2 = (1-t)^2t^2\| x_0^w-x_0^w\|^2 ≥(1−t)2t2dist(~0w,ℳdata)2, ≥ (1-t)^2t^2dist\! ( x_0^w,M_data )^2, because 0w∈ℳdatax_0^w _data. Rearranging gives dist(~0w,ℳdata)2≤t2(1−t)2gτwt(θ).dist\! ( x_0^w,M_data )^2≤ t^2(1-t)^2\,g_τ^wt(θ). (39) If t≤t¯t≤ t, then t2(1−t)2≤t¯2(1−t¯)2, t^2(1-t)^2≤ t^2(1- t)^2, (40) which proves the truncated-window bound. The case t≤12t≤ 12 follows because t2(1−t)2≤1 t^2(1-t)^2≤ 1. ∎ Appendix E Experiments Details E.1 Toy Experiment Setup Details Toy manifold. We construct a toy 3D data manifold to study how preference optimization affects terminal manifold preservation. Specifically, we define a curved surface in ℝ3R^3 by ℳ=(x,y,z)∈ℝ3:x∈[−5,5],y∈[−1,1],z=f(x,y),M= \(x,y,z) ^3:\;x∈[-5,5],\;y∈[-1,1],\;z=f(x,y) \, (41) where f(x,y)=(1.2×exp(−(x−3)2)+1.2×exp(−(x+3)2)−0.9×exp(−x2))⋅(1−0.15y2).f(x,y)= (1.2× \! (-(x-3)^2 )+1.2× \! (-(x+3)^2 )-0.9× \! (-x^2 ) )· (1-0.15y^2 ). (42) This surface consists of two elevated bump regions centered around x=±3x=± 3 and one depressed dip region centered around x=0x=0, with a mild modulation along the y-direction. Preferred and dispreferred regions. To define synthetic preference labels, we partition the manifold according to the x-coordinate. Samples in the two bump regions are treated as preferred, ℳwin=(x,y,z)∈ℳ:|x−3|<1or|x+3|<1,M_win=\(x,y,z) :\ |x-3|<1\ or\ |x+3|<1\, (43) while samples in the central dip region are treated as dispreferred, ℳlose=(x,y,z)∈ℳ:|x|<1.M_lose=\(x,y,z) :\ |x|<1\. (44) The remaining manifold points are regarded as neutral and are not assigned preference labels. This construction produces a simple but geometrically meaningful preference task: the model is encouraged to shift probability mass from the dip region toward the two bump regions. Training pipeline. We first pretrain a reference model on samples from the toy surface using standard flow matching, so that the model learns to generate points lying on the underlying data manifold. In the current implementation, the toy vector field is a three-layer MLP with hidden size 128128 and SiLU activations. We pretrain this model for 10,00010,000 steps with batch size 512512, Adam optimizer, and learning rate 10−310^-3. Starting from this pretrained model, we then construct synthetic preference pairs by treating samples from the two bump regions as preferred and samples from the central dip region as dispreferred. Unless specified otherwise below, each second-stage method is fine-tuned for 10,00010,000 update steps with batch size 512512, Adam optimizer, learning rate 10−410^-4, and gradient clipping at norm 1.01.0. We evaluate every trained model on 10,00010,000 generated samples. All toy experiments are run on CPU only, and each toy configuration completes within roughly five minutes in our implementation. This controlled pipeline allows us to compare how different preference optimization methods improve preference alignment while affecting terminal manifold preservation. Evaluation metrics. We evaluate both preference alignment and manifold preservation using the following manifold-aware metrics on generated samples: • Winner ratio: The fraction of generated samples that lie in the preferred region. This measures how many samples are in the preferred region without considering the manifold drift. • Loser ratio: The fraction of generated samples that lie in the dispreferred region. This measures how many samples remain in undesirable regions without considering the manifold drift. • Strict winner ratio: The fraction of generated samples that are both on-manifold and lie in the preferred region. This measures how much valid probability mass is assigned to preferred samples. • On-manifold ratio: The fraction of generated points that fall inside the valid (x,y)(x,y) domain and inside an ε -tube around the true toy surface, i.e., |z−f(x,y)|≤ε|z-f(x,y)|≤ with ε=0.15 =0.15. • Winner quality: The fraction of preferred-region samples that are also on-manifold. This measures whether samples attracted toward the preferred region remain geometrically valid. • Strict preference score: The equally weighted combination StrictScore=0.5⋅StrictWin+0.5⋅OnManifold,StrictScore=0.5·StrictWin+0.5·OnManifold, which summarizes the trade-off between preference satisfaction and manifold preservation. Compared methods. We compare the following methods in the toy experiment: • RFT [65, 5]. Starting from the pretrained FM model, we fine-tune it with the standard RFT objective only on synthetic data constructed from the preferred bump regions. • FlowDPO [39]. Starting from the pretrained FM model, we fine-tune it with the standard FlowDPO objective on synthetic preference pairs constructed from the preferred bump regions and the dispreferred dip region. • Diffusion-SDPO [15]. We adapt its safeguarded DPO update to the squared flow-matching residuals. The forward preference margin is identical to that of FlowDPO, while the backward gradient through the loser residual is multiplied by a detached safeguard factor. Specifically, for the winner- and loser-side output gradients gwg_w and glg_l, respectively, the factor is sμ=clip((1−μ)‖gw‖2/⟨gw,gl⟩,0,1)s_μ=clip((1-μ)\|g_w\|^2/ g_w,g_l ,0,1) when ⟨gw,gl⟩>0 g_w,g_l >0, and sμ=1s_μ=1 otherwise. We use a frozen pretrained reference model, set μ=0.99μ=0.99, and sweep β∈1,10,100,500β∈\1,10,100,500\. • Linear-DPO [34]. We adapt its linear preference objective to flow-matching residuals. With Δd:=Δθw−Δθl _d:= _θ^w- _θ^l, the implementation forms the detached utility weight u=clip(0.2βΔd+0.5,0.01,1)u=clip(0.2β _d+0.5,0.01,1) and minimizes [u(ℓθw−ℓθl)]E[u( _θ^w- _θ^l)]. The reference model is updated after every optimizer step using an exponential moving average with decay 0.99990.9999. Following the configuration in our implementation, we use learning rate 10−510^-5 and sweep β∈1,10,100,500β∈\1,10,100,500\. • χ [25]. Starting from the pretrained FM model, we fine-tune it with the standard χ objective [−logσ(β⋅[(exp(−Δθw)−Δθw)−(exp(−Δθl)−Δθl)])]E[- σ(β·[( (- _θ^w)- _θ^w)-( (- _θ^l)- _θ^l)])] on synthetic preference pairs constructed from the preferred bump regions and the dispreferred dip region. • FlowDPO + KL. We augment FlowDPO with an additional KL-style regularization term ‖vθ−vref‖\|v_θ-v_ref\| that keeps the fine-tuned model close to the pretrained reference model. This baseline tests whether staying closer to the reference flow is sufficient to mitigate manifold drift. • FlowDPO + RFT. We combine the FlowDPO objective with an additional flow-matching term on preferred samples. This baseline tests whether explicitly anchoring optimization toward preferred data can improve the trade-off between preference alignment and manifold preservation. • ThermoDPO/ ThermoDPO-weighted. Starting from the same pretrained FM model, we fine-tune it with the prototype ThermoDPO objective and with the practical ThermoDPO-weighted variant on the same preference pairs. The main-text tables focus on ThermoDPO-weighted because it is the practical implementation used throughout the empirical study. We also test different τ scheduler (see Fig. 5) which means different weights of preference optimization and terminal manifold perservation. Figure 5: Illustration of different temperature schedules τ(t)τ(t) used in ThermoDPO, including the linear schedule τ(t)=tτ(t)=t, the SNR-style schedule β⋅τ(t)=t2t2+(1−t)2β·τ(t)= t^2t^2+(1-t)^2, and the power schedules β⋅τ(t)=t10β·τ(t)=t^10 and β⋅τ(t)=t0.1β·τ(t)=t^0.1. These schedules control the trade-off between terminal manifold preservation and preference-driven trajectory deformation. Comparison to χ . We compare against χ [25], a DPO variant designed to mitigate overoptimization by replacing the logarithmic link function in the standard DPO objective. On our toy benchmark, χ performs comparably to DPO and does not yield a consistent advantage. We emphasize that this should be interpreted as a setting-specific observation rather than a contradiction of prior work: χ is formulated for the conventional DPO objective over log-probability ratios, whereas our setting is for flow matching, so its benefits may not transfer directly. E.2 Additional Toy Experiments Results E.2.1 Toy Results of ThermoDPO Variants We summarizes the additional sweep results of ThermoDPO variants in Tab. 5. Table 5: Toy experiment results comparing ThermoDPO variants and ThermoDPO-weighted variants. Best results are in bold, and second-best results are underlined. For Loss, lower is better; for all other metrics, higher is better. Method Win (%) ↑ Loss (%) ↓ StrictWin (%) ↑ OnManifold (%) ↑ WinQuality ↑ StrictScore ↑ ThermoDPO with τ(t)=tβτ(t)= tβ ThermoDPO (t, β=1β=1) 81.7 1.0 63.5 72.4 0.778 0.68 ThermoDPO (t, β=10β=10) 50.7 12.8 44 85.9 0.87 0.65 ThermoDPO (t, β=100β=100) 42.5 17.1 36.4 88 0.856 0.622 ThermoDPO (t, β=500β=500) 41.2 17.9 35 88 0.849 0.615 ThermoDPO with τ(t)=1βt2t2+(1−t)2τ(t)= 1β t^2t^2+(1-t)^2 ThermoDPO (t2t2+(1−t)2 t^2t^2+(1-t)^2, β=1β=1) 79.4 1.1 61.6 72.1 0.777 0.669 ThermoDPO (t2t2+(1−t)2 t^2t^2+(1-t)^2, β=10β=10) 50.7 12.8 44 86.3 0.868 0.651 ThermoDPO (t2t2+(1−t)2 t^2t^2+(1-t)^2, β=100β=100) 43.1 17.2 37 87.9 0.857 0.625 ThermoDPO (t2t2+(1−t)2 t^2t^2+(1-t)^2, β=500β=500) 41.4 17.6 35.3 88 0.853 0.616 ThermoDPO with τ(t)=t10βτ(t)= t^10β ThermoDPO (t10t^10, β=1β=1) 47.4 14.2 40.9 86.9 0.863 0.639 ThermoDPO (t10t^10, β=10β=10) 43.5 17.2 37.6 87.6 0.864 0.626 ThermoDPO (t10t^10, β=100β=100) 41.6 17.6 35.2 87.8 0.847 0.615 ThermoDPO (t10t^10, β=500β=500) 41.1 17.9 35.2 88.3 0.856 0.617 ThermoDPO with τ(t)=t0.1βτ(t)= t^0.1β ThermoDPO (t0.1t^0.1, β=1β=1) 92.0 0.4 65.5 69 0.712 0.673 ThermoDPO (t0.1t^0.1, β=10β=10) 54 10.3 46.6 81.3 0.863 0.64 ThermoDPO (t0.1t^0.1, β=100β=100) 43.8 16.9 37.9 88.3 0.866 0.631 ThermoDPO (t0.1t^0.1, β=500β=500) 41.2 18.3 35.2 87.8 0.854 0.615 ThermoDPO-weighted with τ(t)=tβτ(t)= tβ ThermoDPO-weighted (t, β=1β=1) 92.7 0.5 87.6 92.2 0.945 0.899 ThermoDPO-weighted (t, β=10β=10) 92.0 0.4 86.1 91.5 0.935 0.888 ThermoDPO-weighted (t, β=100β=100) 91.2 0.4 85.9 92.1 0.941 0.89 ThermoDPO-weighted (t, β=500β=500) 91.9 0.4 86.2 92.2 0.939 0.892 ThermoDPO-weighted with τ(t)=1βt2t2+(1−t)2τ(t)= 1β t^2t^2+(1-t)^2 ThermoDPO-weighted (t2t2+(1−t)2 t^2t^2+(1-t)^2, β=1β=1) 92.5 0.6 87.2 91.9 0.943 0.895 ThermoDPO-weighted (t2t2+(1−t)2 t^2t^2+(1-t)^2, β=10β=10) 91.6 0.4 85.7 91.8 0.936 0.887 ThermoDPO-weighted (t2t2+(1−t)2 t^2t^2+(1-t)^2, β=100β=100) 91.4 0.3 85.6 91.6 0.936 0.886 ThermoDPO-weighted (t2t2+(1−t)2 t^2t^2+(1-t)^2, β=500β=500) 91.2 0.4 85.7 92 0.94 0.888 ThermoDPO-weighted with τ(t)=t10βτ(t)= t^10β ThermoDPO-weighted (t10t^10, β=1β=1) 91.8 0.4 86.4 92.2 0.941 0.893 ThermoDPO-weighted (t10t^10, β=10β=10) 91.6 0.4 86.3 92.2 0.941 0.892 ThermoDPO-weighted (t10t^10, β=100β=100) 91.4 0.5 85.6 91.9 0.936 0.887 ThermoDPO-weighted (t10t^10, β=500β=500) 91.4 0.4 85.5 91.8 0.936 0.887 ThermoDPO-weighted with τ(t)=t0.1βτ(t)= t^0.1β ThermoDPO-weighted (t0.1t^0.1, β=1β=1) 93.1 0.5 87.9 92.2 0.944 0.9 ThermoDPO-weighted (t0.1t^0.1, β=10β=10) 91.9 0.4 86 92 0.936 0.89 ThermoDPO-weighted (t0.1t^0.1, β=100β=100) 92.1 0.4 86.4 92 0.939 0.892 ThermoDPO-weighted (t0.1t^0.1, β=500β=500) 91.4 0.3 86.1 92.2 0.942 0.891 E.2.2 Additional Results of RFT Tab. 6 isolates the effect of longer RFT training on the toy surface. Increasing the budget from 1010K to 100100K steps raises OnManifold from 88.3%88.3\% to 96.5%96.5\% and StrictScore from 0.8580.858 to 0.9540.954, consistent with winner-only reconstruction fitting this synthetic preferred region. The result should not be transferred directly to real images: in Tab. 4, RFT is strong on held-out metrics but does not attain the largest four-metric macro-average gain. Table 6: Toy experiment results of RFT. Method Itr. Win (%) ↑ Loss (%) ↓ StrictWin (%) ↑ OnManifold (%) ↑ WinQuality ↑ StrictScore ↑ RFT 1K 89.2 1.5 78.1 85.8 0.876 0.819 RFT 10K 93.6 0.3 83.4 88.3 0.891 0.858 RFT 50K 96.8 0.1 92.4 94.9 0.954 0.937 RFT 100K 97.5 0.0 94.3 96.5 0.967 0.954 E.2.3 Toy Results of Manifolds with Different Curvatures Tab. 7 repeats the controlled comparison on a plane, cylinder, sphere, and saddle. Within the reported β grid, ThermoDPO-weighted attains the highest StrictScore on each geometry (0.9470.947, 0.9760.976, 0.9860.986, and 0.9610.961, respectively). The degree of FlowDPO drift varies with geometry and β, so these results support robustness across the tested surfaces rather than universal manifold preservation. Table 7: Toy experiment results comparing FlowDPO and ThermoDPO-weighted variants across manifolds with different curvature. Best results are in bold for each geometry. II means the second fundamental form, and K means the Gaussian curvature. Method Win (%) ↑ Loss (%) ↓ StrictWin (%) ↑ OnManifold (%) ↑ WinQuality ↑ StrictScore ↑ Plane (I=0I=0, K=0K=0) RFT 95.6 0 90.2 94.5 0.943 0.923 FlowDPO (β=1β=1) 85.1 0.1 47.6 59.1 0.56 0.534 FlowDPO (β=10β=10) 35.1 15.4 31.2 78.5 0.889 0.549 FlowDPO (β=100β=100) 30.3 19.1 27.8 94.3 0.918 0.611 FlowDPO (β=500β=500) 34.1 15.9 30.7 79.1 0.9 0.549 ThermoDPO-weighted (linear,β=1β=1) 97.4 0 93.4 96 0.959 0.947 ThermoDPO-weighted (linear,β=10β=10) 97.3 0 93.3 95.9 0.959 0.946 ThermoDPO-weighted (linear,β=100β=100) 97.2 0 93 95.7 0.956 0.943 ThermoDPO-weighted (linear,β=500β=500) 97.2 0 92.8 95.5 0.955 0.942 Cylinder (I≠0I≠ 0, K=0K=0) RFT 97.7 0 95.7 97.9 0.979 0.968 FlowDPO (β=1β=1) 90.8 0 20.4 28.1 0.225 0.243 FlowDPO (β=10β=10) 74.1 0.2 25.7 47.4 0.347 0.365 FlowDPO (β=100β=100) 32.6 16.4 31.4 93.4 0.966 0.624 FlowDPO (β=500β=500) 25.8 22.8 25 96.9 0.968 0.609 ThermoDPO-weighted (linear, β=1β=1) 97.8 0 96.5 98.7 0.987 0.976 ThermoDPO-weighted (linear, β=10β=10) 97.8 0 96.1 98.2 0.982 0.971 ThermoDPO-weighted (linear, β=100β=100) 97.7 0 96.1 98.4 0.984 0.972 ThermoDPO-weighted (linear, β=500β=500) 97.9 0 96.2 98.3 0.983 0.972 Sphere (K>0K>0) RFT 96.7 0 96.6 99.9 0.999 0.982 FlowDPO (β=1β=1) 100 0 39.3 39.3 0.393 0.393 FlowDPO (β=10β=10) 66.2 2.5 65.1 84.5 0.983 0.748 FlowDPO (β=100β=100) 27.6 21.4 27.5 99.6 0.997 0.635 FlowDPO (β=500β=500) 26.6 23.2 26.5 99.6 0.996 0.631 ThermoDPO-weighted (linear, β=1β=1) 97.2 0 97.2 99.9 1 0.985 ThermoDPO-weighted (linear, β=10β=10) 96.9 0 96.9 99.9 0.999 0.984 ThermoDPO-weighted (linear, β=100β=100) 97.1 0 97.1 100 1 0.985 ThermoDPO-weighted (linear, β=500β=500) 97.1 0 97.1 100 1 0.986 Saddle (K<0K<0) RFT 97.9 0 94 96 0.96 0.95 FlowDPO (β=1β=1) 96.1 0 59 62.6 0.613 0.608 FlowDPO (β=10β=10) 71 2.3 66.4 88.7 0.936 0.775 FlowDPO (β=100β=100) 28.8 19.9 27.3 96 0.946 0.616 FlowDPO (β=500β=500) 27.3 21.9 25.9 96.2 0.948 0.611 ThermoDPO-weighted (linear, β=1β=1) 97.4 0 94.8 97.4 0.974 0.961 ThermoDPO-weighted (linear, β=10β=10) 97.2 0 94.4 97.3 0.972 0.959 ThermoDPO-weighted (linear, β=100β=100) 97.6 0 94.9 97.2 0.972 0.96 ThermoDPO-weighted (linear, β=500β=500) 97.8 0 95 97.2 0.971 0.961 E.3 Real-Image Experimental Protocol on SD3.5-M Prompt suites. For the real-image experiment, we use the OCR suitein which reward hacking is easier to observe. The prompt is the same as the OCR prompt of DiffusionNFT [71]. Backbone model and training setup. All methods are initialized from the Stable Diffusion 3.5-M checkpoint. To ensure a controlled comparison, we keep the architecture, tokenizer, text encoder, image resolution, inference sampler, and sampling budget fixed across methods. All real-image experiments are run at resolution 512×512512× 512 using the DPM2 sampler with 40 sampling steps. Unless otherwise stated, all preference fine-tuning runs use AdamW, a global batch size of 128, and 1200 update steps. Training is performed on 64 × H100 GPUs with 80GB memory per GPU. For each real-image method, we train for more than 24 hours on 64 GPUs, i.e. more than 24×64=153624× 64=1536 GPU-hours per full training sweep. The checkpoints reported in the main results correspond to approximately 711 GPU-hours for RFT, 509 GPU-hours for FlowDPO, 252 GPU-hours for FlowDPO + RFT, 364 GPU-hours for FlowDPO + KL, and 690 GPU-hours for ThermoDPO-weighted. Compared methods. We compare the following methods in the real-image setting: • Base FM model. The pretrained flow-matching model before preference fine-tuning. • RFT. Rejection sampling fine-tuning on preferred samples only. • FlowDPO. Standard pairwise preference optimization for flow models. • FlowDPO + KL. FlowDPO with an additional regularization term that keeps the updated vector field close to the pretrained reference model. • FlowDPO + RFT. A hybrid baseline that combines pairwise preference optimization with a winner-side reconstruction anchor. • ThermoDPO-weighted. Our proposed method with temperature schedules τ(t)=t/βτ(t)=t/β used in the toy experiments. Preference data construction. We construct preference pairs using the same prompt pool for all methods. Specifically, we use 1000 prompts taken directly from DrawBench [52]. For each prompt, we sample 64 candidate images from the pretrained model and rank them with the OCR-based training reward described below. We keep exactly one winner / loser pair per prompt, yielding an offline preference dataset for pairwise fine-tuning. This controlled offline setup matches the practical preference optimization in industrial usage and ensures that the comparison across methods is driven by the optimization objective rather than by differences in prompt pools or candidate generation. E.3.1 Automatic Reward-Model Evaluation Training reward and held-out evaluators. To distinguish genuine alignment from reward hacking, we separate the training reward used to construct the preference data from the held-out evaluators used only at test time. The training reward is an OCR-based prompt-satisfaction metric implemented with PaddleOCR. For held-out evaluation, GenEval follows the same implementation used in Flow-GRPO [38] and DiffusionNFT [71], HPSv3.0 uses the authors’ open-source codebase [45], and UniReward follows the DiffusionNFT evaluation pipeline [71]. E.3.2 Human Evaluation Protocol We report pairwise human preferences in Fig. 4. The current study uses the first 30 prompts from the test dataset, each comparison is labeled by a single annotator, and a tie option is allowed. Because each comparison is labeled once, no inter-rater aggregation is required. The annotator was one of the paper authors. No external crowd workers or paid participants were recruited, and no compensation was involved. The task consisted only of side-by-side judgments over generated images, and no personal or sensitive data were collected. For each prompt, the annotation interface displayed the prompt text together with the candidate images under comparison and asked the annotator to make two separate judgments: one for text accuracy and one for visual quality. The exact instructions were as follows: “Given the prompt and the candidate generated images, judge text accuracy and visual quality separately. For text accuracy, choose the image that better matches the prompt, especially the requested visible text content. For visual quality, choose the image with better overall perceptual quality, including realism, coherence, and freedom from obvious artifacts. If the compared images are indistinguishable for a criterion, choose tie.” An example screenshot of the interface is shown in Fig. 6. Because the annotator was a paper author and the task only involved viewing model outputs and recording preference judgments, we regarded the study as minimal risk. To the best of our understanding of local requirements, this internal author-only evaluation did not require separate IRB or equivalent review. Figure 6: Example screenshot of the human-evaluation interface used in our study. The interface displays the prompt together with the candidate images under comparison for the current example. E.4 Qualitative Results of Real-Image Experiments on SD3.5-M [11] We provide qualitative results of the real-image experiments in Fig. 8, Fig. 9, Fig. 10, Fig. 11, Fig. 12, and Fig. 13. The prompts are seleted from the top 20 prompts in the OCR test set. The prompts from left to right from top to bottom are in Fig. 7. Clearly, the FlowDPO variants exhibit noticeable quality degradation, while ThermoDPO-weighted and RFT maintain visual quality closer to the original model. Figure 7: Prompts in Appendix E.4 (from left to right from top to bottom). 1. A weathered cave explorer’s journal page, with the phrase "Lost City Near" prominently written in faded ink, surrounded by sketches of ancient ruins and cryptic symbols, under a dim, mystical light. 2. A high-altitude mountain summit with a wooden signpost clearly marked "Elevation 8000 Feet", surrounded by rocky terrain and a backdrop of distant, snow-capped peaks under a clear blue sky. 3. A hiking trail with a wooden signpost clearly displaying "Private Property No Entry", surrounded by dense, green foliage and a winding dirt path leading into the forest. 4. A realistic photo of a tech campus courtyard at night, featuring a glowing "AI Training Zone" hologram floating in the center, surrounded by futuristic buildings and greenery, with soft ambient lighting enhancing the futuristic atmosphere. 5. A close-up photograph of an engraved silver ring with the inscription "Forever Yours" delicately etched into its surface, set against a soft, blurred background of romantic, warm tones. 6. A realistic photograph of a fast food drive-thru menu board at dusk, featuring a bold and colorful advertisement that reads "Try Our New Burger" with an appetizing image of the burger below, set against the backdrop of a busy suburban street. 7. A realistic photograph of a wrist tattoo in cursive script reading "Fearless", with the skin slightly tanned and a subtle shadow under the text, set against a neutral background. 8. A dark, decrepit haunted house with a menacing door knocker that reads "Abandon All Hope" in eerie, gothic lettering, set against a moonlit night with twisted, shadowy trees in the background. 9. A detailed ski resort trail map with a prominent marker labeled "Black Diamond Run", set against a snowy backdrop with pine trees and skiers in the distance, capturing the thrill and challenge of the advanced slope. 10. A medieval knight’s castle with a grand drawbridge, the wooden sign above it boldly declaring "Trespassers Will Be Jousted", surrounded by a moat with water lilies and a cloudy sky. 11. A vintage postcard with a faded, nostalgic look, featuring elegant cursive text that reads "Wish You Were Here" against a backdrop of a serene, old-world seaside town with pastel buildings and a gentle, sunny sky. Figure 8: Qualitative results of FlowDPO (β=100β=100) on SD3.5-M. Figure 9: Qualitative results of ThermoDPO-weighted (β=100β=100) on SD3.5-M. Figure 10: Qualitative results of FlowDPO + KL (β=100β=100) on SD3.5-M. Figure 11: Qualitative results of FlowDPO + RFT (β=100β=100) on SD3.5-M. Figure 12: Qualitative results of Original Stable Diffusion 3.5-M. Figure 13: Qualitative results of RFT. E.5 Prompts of Fig. 1 The prompts in Fig. 1 are shown in Fig. 14. Figure 14: Prompts in Fig. 1 (from left to right from top to bottom). 1. A weathered cave explorer’s journal page, with the phrase "Lost City Near" prominently written in faded ink, surrounded by sketches of ancient ruins and cryptic symbols, under a dim, mystical light. 2. A high-altitude mountain summit with a wooden signpost clearly marked "Elevation 8000 Feet", surrounded by rocky terrain and a backdrop of distant, snow-capped peaks under a clear blue sky. 3. A hiking trail with a wooden signpost clearly displaying "Private Property No Entry", surrounded by dense, green foliage and a winding dirt path leading into the forest. 4. A close-up photograph of an engraved silver ring with the inscription "Forever Yours" delicately etched into its surface, set against a soft, blurred background of romantic, warm tones. 5. A realistic photograph of a fast food drive-thru menu board at dusk, featuring a bold and colorful advertisement that reads "Try Our New Burger" with an appetizing image of the burger below, set against the backdrop of a busy suburban street. 6. A realistic photograph of a wrist tattoo in cursive script reading "Fearless", with the skin slightly tanned and a subtle shadow under the text, set against a neutral background. E.6 Real-Image Experimental Results on FLUX.2-klein-base-4B [27] E.6.1 Experimental Results On FLUX.2-klein-base-4B at CFG =3.5=3.5, Tab. 8 shows ThermoDPO-weighted improving GenEval (0.77660.7766 vs. 0.73470.7347), UniReward (0.66630.6663 vs. 0.63580.6358), and HPSv3.0 (9.54209.5420 vs. 9.06759.0675) over the pretrained model while also improving OCR (0.72410.7241 vs. 0.54750.5475). FlowDPO reaches higher OCR (0.83490.8349) but lower values on the other three metrics. This second model reproduces the alignment–quality trade-off observed on SD3.5-M; it does not establish model-independent behavior. Table 8: Quantitative comparison on FLUX.2-klein-base-4B. All compared methods are trained using the OCR preference pair dataset, while evaluation is conducted across GenEval, OCR, UniRwd and HPSv3.0. For each metric, we report the absolute score at both CFG settings. Best results are highlighted in bold. Model CFG GenEval [17] ↑ OCR ↑ UniRwd [62] ↑ HPSv3.0 [45] ↑ FLUX.2-klein-base-4B (Baseline) 1.01.0 0.2951 0.1360 0.4327 0.6506 44 0.7347 0.5475 0.6358 9.0675 FlowDPO [39] (β=100β=100) 1.01.0 0.5426 0.8888 0.5703 6.6977 44 0.6649 0.8349 0.6165 7.8769 ThermoDPO-weighted (t, β=100β=100) 1.01.0 0.6857 0.5162 0.6230 8.3607 44 0.7766 0.7241 0.6663 9.5420