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PARC-Loc: Text-to-Point-Cloud Localization with Partial Assignment and Relational Consistency
Shengkai Ma, Zhenyu Hou, Weihua Cao
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Status: succeeded | Model: Gemma-4-26B-A4B | Prompt: intel-v1 | Confidence: 95%
Last extracted: 10/11/2026, 3:08:03 AM
Summary
The paper introduces PARC-Loc, a text-to-point-cloud localization framework that addresses two failure modes in existing coarse-to-fine methods: layout-inconsistent aliasing and boundary evidence incompleteness. PARC-Loc utilizes Partial Assignment with Relational Consistency (PARC) to jointly model hint-object compatibility and pairwise spatial relations. In the coarse stage, PARC validates layout consistency for submap selection, while in the fine stage, it expands context with adjacent submaps and uses object-level matching weights to guide cross-modal attention. Experiments on KITTI360Pose and CityLoc demonstrate significant improvements over baselines like MNCL.
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Shengkai Ma → authored → PARC-Loc
confidence 99% · PARC-Loc: Text-to-Point-Cloud Localization with Partial Assignment and Relational Consistency Shengkai Ma Zhenyu Hou Weihua Cao
Weihua Cao → authored → PARC-Loc
confidence 99% · PARC-Loc: Text-to-Point-Cloud Localization with Partial Assignment and Relational Consistency Shengkai Ma Zhenyu Hou Weihua Cao
Zhenyu Hou → authored → PARC-Loc
confidence 99% · PARC-Loc: Text-to-Point-Cloud Localization with Partial Assignment and Relational Consistency Shengkai Ma Zhenyu Hou Weihua Cao
PARC-Loc → evaluatedon → KITTI360Pose
confidence 99% · Extensive experiments on KITTI360Pose and CityLoc show that PARC-Loc outperforms conventional coarse-to-fine baselines.
PARC-Loc → evaluatedon → CityLoc
confidence 95% · Extensive experiments on KITTI360Pose and CityLoc show that PARC-Loc outperforms conventional coarse-to-fine baselines.
PARC-Loc → uses → Partial Assignment with Relational Consistency
confidence 95% · PARC-Loc, a coarse-to-fine localization framework built on Partial Assignment with Relational Consistency (PARC).
PARC-Loc → addresses → boundary evidence incompleteness
confidence 92% · At the fine stage, the context is expanded with query-relevant instances from adjacent submaps... PARC yields object-level matching weights that guide cross-modal attention.
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Abstract
Abstract:Text-to-point-cloud localization estimates a position in a city-scale 3D map from descriptions of surrounding objects. Existing coarse-to-fine methods retrieve submaps using aggregate learned compatibility and then localize within a selected submap. However, repetitive or similar urban objects can inflate the embedding similarity between the query and multiple submaps, even when the instance layout within a submap violates the query description. Meanwhile, query-relevant instances often span submap boundaries, leaving the retrieved submap with incomplete contextual evidence. We term these failure modes layout-inconsistent aliasing and boundary evidence incompleteness, respectively. To address them, we propose PARC-Loc, a coarse-to-fine localization framework built on Partial Assignment with Relational Consistency (PARC). PARC jointly models hint-object compatibility and pairwise spatial relations, allowing unmatched elements while favoring assignments consistent with the queried layout. At the coarse stage, its candidate-level assessment complements neural similarity for layout-consistent submap selection. At the fine stage, the context is expanded with query-relevant instances from adjacent submaps, while PARC yields object-level matching weights that guide cross-modal attention. Extensive experiments on KITTI360Pose and CityLoc show that PARC-Loc outperforms conventional coarse-to-fine baselines. On KITTI360Pose, our method improves Top-1 localization recall at 5 m from 0.50 to 0.67, achieving a 34% relative gain over the strongest baseline.
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- Source: https://arxiv.org/abs/2610.09761v1
- Canonical: https://arxiv.org/abs/2610.09761v1
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PARC-Loc: Text-to-Point-Cloud Localization with Partial Assignment and Relational Consistency Shengkai Ma Zhenyu Hou Weihua Cao Abstract Text-to-point-cloud localization estimates a position in a city-scale 3D map from descriptions of surrounding objects. Existing coarse-to-fine methods retrieve submaps using aggregate learned compatibility and then localize within a selected submap. However, repetitive or similar urban objects can inflate the embedding similarity between the query and multiple submaps, even when the instance layout within a submap violates the query description. Meanwhile, query-relevant instances often span submap boundaries, leaving the retrieved submap with incomplete contextual evidence. We term these failure modes layout-inconsistent aliasing and boundary evidence incompleteness, respectively. To address them, we propose PARC-Loc, a coarse-to-fine localization framework built on Partial Assignment with Relational Consistency (PARC). PARC jointly models hint-object compatibility and pairwise spatial relations, allowing unmatched elements while favoring assignments consistent with the queried layout. At the coarse stage, its candidate-level assessment complements neural similarity for layout-consistent submap selection. At the fine stage, the context is expanded with query-relevant instances from adjacent submaps, while PARC yields object-level matching weights that guide cross-modal attention. Extensive experiments on KITTI360Pose and CityLoc show that PARC-Loc outperforms conventional coarse-to-fine baselines. On KITTI360Pose, our method improves Top-1 localization recall at 5m5\,m from 0.50 to 0.67, achieving a 34% relative gain over the strongest baseline. Shengkai Ma Zhenyu Hou Weihua Cao 1 Introduction Text-to-point-cloud (T2P) localization estimates a position in a city-scale 3D map from linguistic descriptions of nearby landmarks (Kolmet et al., 2022). Unlike referred-object grounding, the target does not necessarily correspond to an observed instance. For example, a query such as “west of the green building and east of the gray road” specifies the target through the joint configuration of several surrounding objects. This provides a language-based interface for locating without exact addresses or GPS coordinates, which is promising for applications in autonomous driving and embodied-agent navigation (Anderson et al., 2018; Deruyttere et al., 2019). However, it remains challenging to realize such capabilities: grounding these descriptions in a large-scale point-cloud map requires jointly aligning object semantics and spatial relations across language and point clouds (Chen et al., 2022). Figure 1: Two failure modes in the standard coarse-to-fine decision structure. To address this challenging task, most existing systems follow a coarse-to-fine design introduced by Text2Pos (Kolmet et al., 2022): a neural retriever first selects candidate submaps, after which a fine localizer predicts a position within a selected submap. Subsequent methods advance this pipeline along several dimensions. For spatial structure encoding, RET explicitly models relations at the hint and instance levels, while SpatiaLoc constructs spatial descriptors at instance and global levels (Wang et al., 2023; Shang et al., 2026b). For cross-modal representation alignment, Text2Loc adopts global text–submap contrastive learning, whereas MNCL extends negative contrastive supervision to the global, instance, and relation levels (Xia et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2025). For robustness to partial or ambiguous correspondence, CMMLoc captures semantic interactions under partial relevance, while PMSH propagates localization uncertainty across the coarse and fine stages (Xu et al., 2025; Feng et al., 2025). Despite these advances, these methods generally retain the same decision making: coarse retrieval ranks candidates by an aggregate query-submap similarity, while fine localization treats each selected submap as a self-contained evidence domain. Two limitations exist within this structure: it implicitly equates aggregate similarity with a jointly valid layout and the selected submap with complete localization context. The first limitation can lead to layout-inconsistent aliasing. As illustrated in Fig. 1, common object categories and similar appearances across locations can produce high aggregate query-submap similarity through individually plausible object matches, even when their joint spatial configuration is inconsistent with the relational layout described by the query. Although relation-aware encoders incorporate spatial cues (Wang et al., 2023; Shang et al., 2026b), the final score does not explicitly verify relational consistency at the candidate level. Specifically, these methods do not check whether a query-to-instance configuration satisfies the relational constraints in the query. This motivates an explicit assessment of relational consistency over candidate-specific partial assignments during coarse selection. The second limitation can lead to boundary evidence incompleteness. Cell-based submap construction may distribute query-relevant instances across neighboring submaps, leaving any single submap with incomplete contextual evidence. This loss of context can make neighboring candidates harder to distinguish and exacerbate the text-submap matching uncertainty studied in prior work (Xu et al., 2025; Feng et al., 2025). Incorporating instances from adjacent submaps can recover cross-boundary evidence. However, it may also introduce distractors whose individual object matches appear plausible while their relational configurations are inconsistent with the query. Fine localization should therefore preserve the selected submap as the coordinate anchor while selectively incorporating query-relevant context from adjacent submaps. Although caused by different structural choices, the two failures create the same matching requirement: determining which subset of individually plausible hint–object correspondences forms a coherent explanation of the query layout. At the coarse stage, this assessment differentiates coherent candidates from aliases supported only by isolated coincidences; after neighboring-object aggregation makes cross-boundary evidence available, it separates useful context objects from the accompanying distractors. The required mechanism must therefore allow unsupported hints and irrelevant objects to remain unmatched while jointly evaluating unary attribute compatibility and pairwise layout consistency. We therefore propose PARC-Loc, a text-to-point-cloud localization framework built around Partial Assignment with Relational Consistency (PARC). PARC constructs a soft partial hint–object assignment that jointly evaluates attribute compatibility and pairwise spatial consistency while leaving missing or irrelevant elements unmatched. This mechanism is applied to both coarse submap retrieval and fine localization. In the coarse stage, PARC evaluates each neural proposal and combines its explicit candidate-level consistency with the neural retrieval score for submap selection. In the fine stage, the selected submap defines the coordinate frame, while objects collected from neighboring cells form an expanded evidence set. Reapplying PARC to this set produces object-level matching weights that bias cross-attention toward query-relevant context. Taken together, these two stage-specific applications of PARC yield substantial gains. On the KITTI360Pose test set, PARC-Loc improves Top-1@5m localization recall from 0.50 to 0.67, a 34% relative improvement over MNCL. We further conduct transfer and zero-shot experiments on CityLoc-K and CityLoc-C, where PARC-Loc achieves competitive performance. Module-wise ablations support the individual contributions of our method. In a controlled single-scene stress test, the PARC selector retains 96.7% of its Top-1 retrieval recall as the gallery grows from 819 to 2,549 submaps, compared with 83.8–89.7% for reported baselines. Our main contributions are summarized as follows: • We thoroughly analyze the standard coarse-to-fine pipeline adopted in T2P localization and diagnose two structural failure modes: layout-inconsistent aliasing during coarse submap retrieval and boundary evidence incompleteness during fine localization. • We propose PARC-Loc, a novel language-based localization framework. Within this framework, Layout-Consistent Submap Selection and Cross-Boundary Context Localization specifically mitigate the two structural failure modes through Partial Assignment with Relational Consistency (PARC), a soft hint–object assignment that jointly evaluates semantic and spatial compatibility under partial correspondence. • Extensive experiments on the KITTI360Pose dataset demonstrate that our method outperforms state-of-the-art methods. Experiments on the CityLoc-K and CityLoc-C datasets and under controlled gallery growth further assess the transfer and robustness of our method. 2 Related Work Text-to-point-cloud localization. Text2Pos establishes the prevailing coarse-to-fine formulation on KITTI360Pose, retrieving candidate submaps before estimating a target offset from hint–instance associations (Kolmet et al., 2022). Subsequent methods address different sources of cross-modal ambiguity: RET models instance relations, Text2Loc adopts stronger language representations and matching-free localization, and MNCL introduces multi-level negative contrastive learning over global, instance, and relation cues (Wang et al., 2023; Xia et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2025). CMMLoc and PMSH model partial correspondence and uncertainty (Xu et al., 2025; Feng et al., 2025), while SpatiaLoc and SympLoc strengthen spatial descriptors and alignment geometry (Shang et al., 2026b; Shang and Li, 2026). Vehicle-SceneInteraction studies text-driven 3D LiDAR place recognition for autonomous driving (Shang et al., 2026a), whereas VLM-Loc performs localization through BEV maps and scene graphs (Kang et al., 2026). These methods improve the representation, training, or retrieval of submap compatibility. PARC-Loc instead validates joint layouts during coarse selection and prevents the selected submap boundary from limiting fine-stage evidence. Language-guided 3D spatial reasoning. Language-guided 3D grounding identifies objects or regions from textual descriptions (Huang et al., 2022; Jain et al., 2022). ScanRefer and ReferIt3D establish indoor benchmarks (Chen et al., 2020; Achlioptas et al., 2020), followed by methods for relation modeling, spatial–language alignment, progressive point selection, and dense alignment (He et al., 2021; Zhao et al., 2021; Roh et al., 2022; Luo et al., 2022; Wu et al., 2023). CityRefer extends grounding to city-scale point clouds (Miyanishi et al., 2023). Unlike referred-object grounding, the target in T2P localization may not correspond to an observed instance; it must be inferred from the joint configuration of surrounding objects. This distinction motivates validating hint–object correspondences jointly rather than grounding each hint independently. 3 Preliminaries and Pipeline Diagnosis We formulate text-to-point-cloud localization and diagnose two limitations of its standard coarse-to-fine pipeline. 3.1 Text-to-Point-Cloud Localization Let M=Mnn=1NM=\M_n\_n=1^N denote a city-scale point-cloud map partitioned into overlapping submaps, where Mn=Pn,jj=1OnM_n=\P_n,j\_j=1^O_n contains OnO_n segmented instances. Given a query q=hii=1Hq=\h_i\_i=1^H, whose hints describe target-to-object relations, the task is to estimate the target position (x,y)(x,y) from the joint configuration of the referenced objects. Most existing methods first rank submaps by query–submap similarity and then predict the position from q and the instances in the selected submap Mn^M_ n (Kolmet et al., 2022; Xia et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2025; Xu et al., 2025). Despite its practical effectiveness, this pipeline leaves two structural gaps: (1) a submap is retrieved through an aggregate embedding comparison without explicitly verifying the uniqueness and full consistency between the query and the instance layout. (2) fine localization infers the target position within a single submap, ignoring that the context is often incomplete because of each submap’s fixed spatial extent. Figure 2: Effect of added query-matching instances on candidate scores. Top: standardized score change; bottom: promotion rate among initially non-Top-1 candidates. Curves compare relation-satisfied and relation-violated placements; error bars denote 95% cluster-bootstrap confidence intervals. (a) Prevalence of Boundary-Truncated Evidence Analysis unit Affected Total Rate Boundary-truncated instances 7,907 19,629 40.28% Hints referencing them 11,905 18,459 64.49% Queries 3,179 3,187 99.75% (b) Submap Retrieval Outcomes Top-1 Recall Top-1 Retrieval Errors Model Top-1 Close@1 Close non-GT Other Text2Loc (2024) 33.0% 64.3% 46.8% 53.2% CMMLoc (2025) 34.7% 66.3% 48.3% 51.7% MNCL (2025) 48.4% 79.0% 59.2% 40.8% Table 1: Boundary-related evidence on the KITTI360Pose validation split. (a) Prevalence of boundary-truncated instances and affected hints and queries. (b) Exact Top-1 recall, Close@1 recall within 15m15\,m, and the partition of Top-1 retrieval errors into close non-GT and other submaps. 3.2 Diagnosis of Pipeline Limitations We analyze the two gaps using released Text2Loc, CMMLoc, and MNCL models (Xia et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2025; Xu et al., 2025). All analyses are conducted with their official checkpoints on the KITTI360Pose dataset (Kolmet et al., 2022). Partial Matches Elevate Inconsistent Candidates. Urban environments typically contain abundant similar or repetitive objects (Torii et al., 2013). Repeated objects allow a candidate to contain individually plausible but jointly inconsistent matches, which can raise the aggregate submap score when no explicit joint-layout verification is imposed. To measure this effect, we test 911 partially matched candidates by replacing unrelated instances with one to six exact semantic matches. Paired variants have identical geometry and semantic attributes but differ in whether their placement satisfies the queried relation. Figure 2 shows that both candidate scores and Top-1 promotion rates increase even under relation-violated placements, while satisfying the relation provides an additional gain. These results demonstrate that partial matches may mislead models without explicit joint layout verification, resulting in layout-inconsistent aliasing. Submap Boundaries Truncate Query Evidence. Large-scale objects such as sidewalks and roads often span multiple submaps and are therefore truncated at cell boundaries. Table 1(a) shows that 40.28% of instances are boundary-truncated, 64.49% of hints refer to them, and 99.75% of queries contain at least one such hint. The resulting fragments make neighboring submaps similar while reducing the evidence available within any single submap. Across the three baselines, nearby non-ground-truth submaps account for 46.8–59.2% of Top-1 retrieval errors (Table 1(b)), indicating that neighboring candidates often share relevant evidence while omitting different fragments. Thus, even when the coarse stage retrieves the submap containing the most relevant evidence, the fine stage may still operate on incomplete context, resulting in boundary evidence incompleteness. Together, these diagnoses define two requirements: coarse selection should validate matched instances as a joint layout, whereas fine localization should preserve the selected coordinate frame while admitting relevant cross-boundary evidence. Both require semantic and spatial compatibility to be evaluated under partial correspondence. This motivates PARC’s candidate-level assessment for submap selection and object-level weights for context routing. 4 Method Figure 3: Overview of PARC-Loc. In the coarse stage, the relational consistency between hints and each submap is explicitly assessed through partial assignment to produce a reliable submap selection. In the fine stage, neighboring-object aggregation first makes cross-boundary context available; PARC is then reapplied to produce object weights that bias cross-attention before offset prediction. 4.1 Overview Given a query q, the coarse retrieval stage first uses a neural retriever to rank the submaps in M by neural similarity scores Ssim(q,Mn)S_sim(q,M_n) and retains the top-K candidates. For each candidate MnM_n, PARC evaluates whether the objects form a partial hint–object assignment that is explicitly consistent in both attributes and pairwise layout. Combining its candidate-level score with neural similarity, our approach identifies the best-matching submap Mn^M_ n. At the fine localization stage, the selected submap Mn^M_ n serves as the coordinate anchor. Objects from its neighborhood are expressed in its coordinate frame, and PARC is reapplied to compute query-conditioned object-matching weights. These weights bias hint-to-object cross-attention before the model predicts a location offset. 4.2 Partial Assignment with Relational Consistency (PARC) At both stages, a query refers to only a subset of map objects, while some referenced objects may be absent or truncated and unrelated objects may be present. PARC models this partial correspondence while requiring the assigned objects to preserve the relations expressed by the query. It combines unary attribute compatibility, pairwise layout consistency (Mémoli, 2011; Peyré et al., 2016), and partial assignment constraints in one objective. Consider a query q with H hints and an input instance set P=Pjj=1OP=\P_j\_j=1^O. Hint i specifies a category ℓi _i, an appearance attribute κi _i, and a target-to-object direction. Instance PjP_j has category ℓj _j, appearance κj _j, and a two-dimensional ground-plane center pjp_j. We represent their soft correspondence by a nonnegative matrix T∈ℝH×OT ^H× O, where TijT_ij is the assignment mass between hint i and instance PjP_j. Unary attribute compatibility. Let δ(x,y)δ(x,y) be zero if x=yx=y and one otherwise. The unary cost of an individual correspondence is Uij=λcatδ(ℓi,ℓj)+λappδ(κi,κj),U_ij= _catδ( _i, _j)+ _appδ( _i, _j), (1) where λcat _cat and λapp _app specify mismatch cost weights. Unary compatibility identifies plausible pairs but, as diagnosed in Sec. 3, cannot determine whether they form one valid layout. Pairwise layout consistency. We therefore evaluate the relations among assigned objects. From the target-to-object directions in q, we derive a set ℰqE_q of valid hint pairs. Each (i,k)∈ℰq(i,k) _q implies an object-to-object relation rikqr^q_ik. For example, if the target is west of one referenced object and east of another, the first object should lie east of the second. For (i,k)∈ℰq(i,k) _q, the cost Vik(j,l)V_ik(j,l) penalizes assigning the hint pair (i,k)(i,k) to the object pair (j,l)(j,l) when the ground-plane relation between instances PjP_j and PlP_l is inconsistent with the object-to-object relation rikqr^q_ik implied by hints hih_i and hkh_k. Following the fused transport principle of combining node attributes and pairwise structure (Vayer et al., 2019), we define q,P(T)=∑i,jUijTij+αrelZq∑(i,k)∈ℰq∑j,lVik(j,l)TijTkl,J_q,P(T)= _i,jU_ijT_ij+ _relZ_q _(i,k) _q _j,lV_ik(j,l)T_ijT_kl, (2) where Zq=max(1,|ℰq|)Z_q= (1,|E_q|) normalizes the number of valid query relations and αrel _rel controls the relative penalty for layout violations. Partial correspondence. A query mentions only a subset of map objects, and boundary truncation may remove referenced objects. A complete one-to-one assignment would force missing hints or unrelated objects into incorrect correspondences. We therefore impose partial rather than complete matching (Chapel et al., 2020; Sarlin et al., 2020): Tij≥0,∑jTij≤1,∑iTij≤1,∑i,jTij=μ,μ=min(ρH,O). \ aligned T_ij&≥ 0, _jT_ij≤ 1, _iT_ij≤ 1,\\ _i,jT_ij&=μ, μ= (ρ H,O). aligned . (3) where ρ∈[0,1]ρ∈[0,1] specifies the matched fraction of hint mass. The capacities limit repeated use of a hint or object, while the partial mass μ leaves irrelevant objects and missing references unmatched. We define T^(q,P)=PARC(q,P) T(q,P)=PARC(q,P) as a feasible plan obtained by approximately minimizing the objective in Eq. (2) subject to the constraints in Eq. (3). Its normalized objective value provides the candidate-level consistency used in the coarse stage, while its column mass provides the object matching weights used in fine localization. 4.3 Coarse Stage: Layout-Consistent Submap Selection Neural retrieval efficiently narrows the city-scale search space (Uy and Lee, 2018; Komorowski, 2021), while PARC explicitly validates whether the matched objects form a coherent query layout in each of the K candidate submaps. For each candidate MnM_n, PARC returns T^n=PARC(q,Mn) T_n=PARC(q,M_n). Its normalized score is Sparc(q,Mn)=−q,Mn(T^n)max(∥T^n∥1,ε0),S_parc(q,M_n)=- J_q,M_n( T_n) \! ( T_n _1, _0 ), (4) where ε0>0 _0>0 is a numerical stabilizer. A high score requires low-cost unary matches that also preserve the joint layout. Because PARC complements rather than replaces learned neural similarity, we combine its candidate-level consistency SparcS_parc with the neural similarity SsimS_sim to select the submap. This design effectively suppresses layout-inconsistent aliases. The selected submap defines the coordinate frame for fine localization, but not its complete evidence domain. 4.4 Fine Stage: Cross-Boundary Context Localization Even a correct or nearby selected submap may omit query-relevant instances across its boundary. The fine stage therefore first expands the available context and then uses PARC to determine which objects support the joint query layout before routing them through cross-attention. Neighboring-object aggregation. We collect objects from the neighborhood centered at Mn^M_ n and express every object in the selected-submap frame: p~j=pj−on^Ln^, p_j= p_j-o_ nL_ n, (5) where on^o_ n is the two-dimensional origin and Ln^L_ n is the side length of Mn^M_ n. This preserves a single coordinate system across submap boundaries. We retain the most relevant objects using a prioritization strategy that considers their compatibility with the query and the surrounding spatial context. This deterministic capacity control makes cross-boundary evidence available without asserting that every retained object is relevant. Object matching weights. Because the expanded context also introduces irrelevant objects, we reapply PARC to the retained instance set PctxP_ctx, obtaining T^ctx=PARC(q,Pctx) T_ctx=PARC(q,P_ctx). Its object-wise column mass and normalized weight are wj=∑i(T^ctx)ij,w~j=wjmaxlwl+ε0.w_j= _i( T_ctx)_ij, w_j= w_j _lw_l+ _0. (6) The normalized weight quantifies the contribution of instance PjP_j to a low-cost joint explanation. These quantities are matching weights, which enable the fine localizer to route the available context toward query-relevant objects. Cross-attention with matching bias. Let qiq_i and kjk_j denote the dkd_k-dimensional projected representation of hint hih_i and the key projection of context instance PjP_j, respectively. We incorporate the PARC-derived weight as an additive log bias in hint-to-object attention: Aij=softmaxj(qi⊤kjdk+βlog(w~j+ε0)),A_ij=softmax_j\! ( q_i k_j d_k+β ( w_j+ _0) ), (7) where β≥0β≥ 0 controls the strength of the matching bias. When β=0β=0, Eq. (7) reduces to standard content-based attention (Vaswani et al., 2017). Increasing β gives more attention to objects supported by a relationally consistent partial assignment while retaining the flexibility of learned cross-modal interaction. The fine decoder produces a normalized two-dimensional offset d d in the selected-submap frame, which is converted back to map coordinates by p^=on^+Ln^d^. p=o_ n+L_ n d. (8) The neural retriever retains its standard training objective, while the fine decoder is trained with the fine-localization loss ℒfine=∥d^−d∗∥22L_fine= d-d^* _2^2, where d∗=(p∗−on^)/Ln^d^*=(p^*-o_ n)/L_ n is the ground-truth normalized offset and p∗p^* is the ground-truth map position. At inference, PARC first refines the neural candidate ranking and is then reapplied to route cross-boundary evidence during offset prediction. 5 Experiments Method Venue Localization Recall (τ=5/10/15mτ=5/10/15\,m) ↑ Validation Set Test Set k=1k=1 k=5k=5 k=10k=10 k=1k=1 k=5k=5 k=10k=10 Text2Pos (2022) CVPR’22 0.14/0.25/0.31 0.36/0.55/0.61 0.48/0.68/0.74 0.13/0.21/0.25 0.33/0.48/0.52 0.43/0.61/0.65 RET (2023) AAAI’23 0.19/0.30/0.37 0.44/0.62/0.67 0.52/0.72/0.78 0.16/0.25/0.29 0.35/0.51/0.56 0.46/0.65/0.71 Text2Loc (2024) CVPR’24 0.37/0.57/0.63 0.68/0.85/0.87 0.77/0.91/0.93 0.33/0.48/0.52 0.61/0.75/0.78 0.71/0.84/0.86 CMMLoc (2025) CVPR’25 0.44/0.62/0.68 0.75/0.88/0.90 0.83/0.93/0.95 0.39/0.53/0.56 0.67/0.80/0.82 0.77/0.87/0.89 PMSH (2025) ICCV’25 0.42/0.62/0.68 0.75/0.89/0.90 0.83/0.94/0.95 0.39/0.55/0.59 0.68/0.81/0.83 0.78/0.89/0.90 MNCL (2025) AAAI’25 0.54/0.75/0.79 0.83/0.94/0.95 0.89/0.97/0.98 0.50/0.66/0.68 0.76/0.87/0.89 0.83/0.93/0.94 Des4Pos (2026a) T-ITS’26 0.53/0.75/0.80 0.81/0.95/0.96 0.86/0.97/0.98 0.48/0.67/0.71 0.74/0.89/0.90 0.81/0.94/0.95 PARC-Loc Ours 0.71/0.85/0.87 0.91/0.97/0.98 0.94/0.98/0.99 0.67/0.80/0.82 0.87/0.94/0.95 0.90/0.96/0.97 Table 2: Full localization results on KITTI360Pose. Each entry reports Top-k recall at 5/10/15m5/10/15\,m. Best results are in bold, and second-best results are underlined. Method Submap Retrieval Recall ↑ Validation Set Test Set k=1k=1 k=3k=3 k=5k=5 k=1k=1 k=3k=3 k=5k=5 Text2Pos (2022) 0.14 0.28 0.37 0.12 0.25 0.33 Text2Loc (2024) 0.32 0.56 0.67 0.28 0.49 0.58 CMMLoc (2025) 0.35 0.61 0.73 0.32 0.53 0.63 PMSH (2025) 0.37 0.63 0.73 0.34 0.56 0.65 MNCL (2025) 0.50 0.75 0.84 0.44 0.67 0.75 Des4Pos (2026a) 0.50 0.76 0.84 0.45 0.69 0.77 PARC-Loc 0.54 0.81 0.89 0.51 0.76 0.83 Table 3: Coarse submap retrieval recall on KITTI360Pose. Best results are in bold, and second-best results are underlined. 5.1 Experimental Setup Dataset and protocol. Experiments are conducted on KITTI360Pose (Kolmet et al., 2022; Liao et al., 2022) and CityLoc (Kang et al., 2026), two benchmarks for city-scale T2P localization. Following the official KITTI360Pose protocol, we use five scenes for training, one for validation, and three for testing, with 30m30\,m cubic submaps extracted at a 10m10\,m stride. CityLoc comprises CityLoc-K for training and in-domain evaluation and CityLoc-C (Hu et al., 2022) for zero-shot cross-domain testing. Each 50×50m50× 50\,m map is paired with six textual hints. KITTI360Pose contains 3,187 validation queries and 11,505 test queries, corresponding to 1,116 and 3,932 distinct target-position clusters, respectively. Evaluation metrics. Submap retrieval is evaluated by top-1/3/5 recall of the annotated ground-truth submap. Fine localization uses the top-k candidates, k∈1,5,10k∈\1,5,10\, and reports recall within τ∈5,10,15mτ∈\5,10,15\\,m (Kolmet et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2025). Implementation. PARC-Loc adopts the neural backbone of MNCL (Liu et al., 2025). For hyper-parameters, we set αrel=0.8 _rel=0.8, λcat=1 _cat=1, and λapp=0.5 _app=0.5. The benchmark experiments were run on an NVIDIA RTX A6000 GPU; the matched-seed analysis below used an NVIDIA A800 80GB. We make no runtime comparison across GPU types. For KITTI360Pose, neural retrieval proposes 20 candidates for PARC reranking. The fine decoder uses at most 64 object tokens from the selected-submap-centered ×33\!×\!3 neighborhood. Exact category–appearance matches are retained first, category matches second, and remaining objects third, with deterministic source order and distance used to break ties. This ordering controls the token budget; PARC subsequently computes matching weights over all retained objects. 5.2 Quantitative Analysis End-to-end localization. As shown in Table 2, PARC-Loc obtains the best recall across all metrics on both KITTI360Pose splits. Under the strict Top-1@5m5\,m metric, it reaches 0.71 on validation and 0.67 on test, exceeding MNCL by 17 percentage points on both splits. Its advantage persists across larger thresholds and candidate ranks, although the margin narrows as recall approaches saturation. These results demonstrate the overall effectiveness of our method. The analyses below further disentangle the sources of the observed gains. Submap retrieval. Table 3 shows that PARC-Loc outperforms the strongest baseline across all retrieval metrics, by 4–5 percentage points on validation and 6–7 percentage points on test. By construction, this metric credits only the annotated ground-truth submap. A neighboring non-GT submap can still support a correct final prediction once cross-boundary context is included. This retrieval metric is used to isolate coarse-stage submap selection, while final localization remains the primary measure. 5.3 Ablation Studies We evaluate the PARC terms and assess the complete pipeline by cumulatively enabling its coarse and fine stage components. Ablation on Submap Retrieval. Variant Validation Set Test Set k=1k=1 k=3k=3 k=5k=5 k=1k=1 k=3k=3 k=5k=5 Neural retriever 0.49 0.75 0.83 0.46 0.70 0.78 PARC w/o unary 0.53 0.80 0.89 0.51 0.76 0.82 PARC w/o relation 0.52 0.79 0.87 0.50 0.74 0.82 PARC w/o partial 0.51 0.77 0.85 0.48 0.72 0.79 Full PARC 0.54 0.81 0.89 0.51 0.76 0.83 Table 4: Retrieval-level ablation of PARC on KITTI360Pose. All variants share our MNCL-style neural retriever. The full model is highlighted in bold. All variants in Table 4 start from the same neural backbone and differ only in the objective used in PARC. Full PARC raises Top-1 retrieval recall from 0.49 to 0.54 on validation and from 0.46 to 0.51 on test. Replacing partial assignment causes the largest test degradation, reducing Top-1 recall to 0.48. Removing relational consistency lowers Top-1 recall to 0.50, while removing unary compatibility ties full PARC at Top-1 but reduces Top-5 recall from 0.83 to 0.82. The degradation of the relation and partial variants further supports assessing a relationally consistent partial layout rather than relying only on individually compatible objects. These results demonstrate that explicit assessment of relational consistency through partial assignment effectively constrains the joint layout of candidates, achieving considerable improvements in submap retrieval. Ablation on End-to-End Localization. Cumulative variant Localization Recall ↑ Validation Test Neural pipeline 0.54/0.82/0.89 0.51/0.78/0.85 ++ Coarse PARC 0.62/0.89/0.93 0.61/0.84/0.88 ++ Neighbor context 0.66/0.90/0.93 0.64/0.85/0.89 ++ Query-conditioned priority 0.69/0.90/0.93 0.66/0.85/0.90 Full PARC-Loc (++ bias) 0.71/0.91/0.94 0.67/0.87/0.90 Table 5: Cumulative end-to-end ablation on KITTI360Pose. Each entry reports Top-1/5/10 localization recall within 5m5\,m. The full model is highlighted in bold. The first row of Table 5 is the controlled neural baseline, which combines the MNCL-style neural retriever with the original single-submap regressor. Coarse PARC raises test Top-1@5m5\,m recall from 0.51 to 0.61. With coarse PARC fixed, neighboring context, query-conditioned prioritization, and matching bias increase it successively to 0.64, 0.66, and 0.67. These order-conditioned increments show that the coarse-stage PARC provides the largest gain, while context construction and routing contribute a further 6 percentage points. The two tables therefore show the effectiveness of the shared PARC formulation and its two stage-specific readouts: candidate-level energy for coarse assessment and object-level assignment mass for fine-stage routing. Context availability. To examine how much evidence is lost at a submap boundary, we compare three context constructions on a frozen validation candidate stream and checkpoint (Table 6). This diagnostic complements the cumulative pipeline ablation above; its rows are not intended as a row-wise reconstruction of Table 5. Table 6: Validation Top-1 localization recall (%) under controlled context construction. Each column gives the distance threshold; higher is better. Context construction @5m @10m @15m Single selected submap 62.22 82.65 86.41 Five-cell context 67.74 84.00 86.57 Distance-prioritized ×33\!×\!3 66.68 83.68 86.32 Both expanded contexts improve the strict 5m endpoint over the single-submap input, by 5.52 and 4.46 percentage points, respectively. However, the larger distance-prioritized neighborhood does not outperform the five-cell context. The comparison therefore supports making neighboring evidence available, without implying that a larger context alone is always better. Stability across training seeds. We next assess whether the matching-bias benefit persists across training randomness. Table 7 reports matched epoch-3 runs with seeds 2027, 2028, and 2029. The β=0.3β=0.3 condition has higher mean recall at every reported candidate rank. With only three seeds, these results provide a limited stability check, not a population-level significance claim. Table 7: Matched-seed localization recall within 5m (%). Values are mean ± sample standard deviation over seeds 2027–2029 at epoch 3. Higher is better. Candidate rank β=0β=0 β=0.3β=0.3 Top-1 68.92±0.7368.92± 0.73 71.10±0.4971.10± 0.49 Top-3 84.96±0.5184.96± 0.51 85.90±0.7985.90± 0.79 Top-5 89.11±0.5489.11± 0.54 90.97±0.6890.97± 0.68 Top-10 92.15±0.4692.15± 0.46 93.95±0.5093.95± 0.50 Figure 4: Qualitative examples of the two stage-specific mechanisms. Query boxes reproduce the relations while omitting the repeated subject “Pose is.” (a) PARC replaces the MNCL neural Top-1 distant alias with a candidate within 15m. (b) A close non-GT selected submap omits neighboring evidence; the ×33\!×\!3 context reduces localization error. Red and green outlines mark incorrect and correct results, respectively. The yellow marker denotes the ground-truth pose, and the blue marker denotes the predicted pose. 5.4 Further Analysis Generalization on CityLoc. Method CityLoc-K Val. CityLoc-K Test R@5m R@10m R@15m R@5m R@10m R@15m Text2Pos 16.48 40.69 62.92 14.62 38.27 59.55 Text2Loc 18.91 45.26 64.28 17.97 41.22 61.50 MNCL 19.30 45.94 64.50 18.76 42.63 62.58 CMMLoc 20.77 48.65 67.89 21.71 46.67 66.00 VLM-Loc 36.23 63.66 77.77 35.91 63.81 76.79 PARC-Loc 32.84 61.12 80.47 31.04 59.31 77.64 Table 8: Localization on CityLoc-K. Recalls are reported as percentages under 5m5\,m, 10m10\,m, and 15m15\,m thresholds. Best results are in bold, and second-best results are underlined. VLM-Loc (2026) is included for reference and uses vision-language reasoning over BEV and scene-graph inputs, whereas the remaining methods follow the conventional T2P setting. Method R@5m ↑ R@10m ↑ R@15m ↑ Text2Pos 8.11 27.21 50.01 Text2Loc 9.45 29.44 51.17 MNCL 13.68 35.93 53.78 CMMLoc 11.68 34.79 54.71 VLM-Loc 21.37 49.12 68.26 PARC-Loc 16.56 48.96 73.57 Table 9: Zero-shot cross-domain localization on CityLoc-C. Recalls are reported as percentages. PARC-Loc is trained on CityLoc-K and evaluated on CityLoc-C. Best results are in bold, and second-best results are underlined. Table 8 reports in-domain validation and test results on CityLoc-K. PARC-Loc obtains the best R@15m15\,m, reaching 80.47% on validation and 77.64% on test, while VLM-Loc remains stronger at the stricter R@5m5\,m and R@10m10\,m thresholds. We further evaluate zero-shot cross-domain transfer from CityLoc-K to CityLoc-C without training or threshold tuning on CityLoc-C. As shown in Table 9, PARC-Loc obtains the best R@15m at 73.57% and remains within 0.16 percentage points of VLM-Loc at R@10m, while VLM-Loc leads under the strict R@5m criterion. Given that VLM-Loc is tailored to vision-language reasoning over BEV and scene-graph inputs (Kang et al., 2026), this competitive performance supports the cross-domain transferability of PARC-Loc without implying uniform superiority across all localization thresholds. Robustness to gallery growth. Figure 5: Robustness to controlled gallery growth. (a) Gallery expansion. (b) Top-1 submap retrieval recall at each radius. (c) Recall retention relative to the 200m200\,m gallery. Following MNCL (Liu et al., 2025), we fix 2,373 query descriptions within the 200m200\,m region and progressively expand the gallery around the same center. As shown in Fig. 5, PARC-Loc retains 96.7% of its Top-1 recall at 500m500\,m, decreasing from 54.11% to 52.34%. In comparison, MNCL, Text2Loc, and CMMLoc retain only 89.7%, 83.8%, and 84.4%, respectively. This smaller degradation indicates that explicit layout validation improves robustness to distractors arising from repeated instances and partial layout matches. 5.5 Qualitative Analysis The quantitative analyses measure aggregate performance; we now examine two fixed cases to illustrate the two stage-specific mechanisms of PARC-Loc (Figure 4). In the first case, the neural Top-1 candidate is a distant layout-inconsistent alias, and PARC promotes a candidate within 15m of the target. In the second, a nearby selected submap is not the annotated ground-truth cell and omits neighboring evidence; cross-boundary context reduces the final localization error. Together, these cases illustrate why candidate verification and context expansion address different failure modes. 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